Helping+Students+Interpret+History

Helping Students Interpret History Think for a moment about your experiences studying history, then answer the G_ lowing questions. 1. Identify at least six things that define, for you, the study of history. 2. What appears to dominate your list? 3. To what extent do you emphasize people, events, and dates? 4. To what degree does your definition indicate that history is an ongoing process of providing meaning? 5. To what degree does your view of history indicate that history provides you with a set oftrue relationships that connect the past, present, and future? 6. To what extent do you mention the process or methods of obtaining information? 7. Discuss your answers with friends. Do they see history as you do? Explain your findings. People need to know about their pasts and their places in world history. This chapter is concerned with how we learn about our past and how that past can be made meaningful to us as individuals and as citizens of an increasingly interdependent nation and world. The study of history is personal and exciting but is often viewed by students as remote and uninteresting. Students have difficulty giving reasons for studying history because it does not seem to serve a utilitarian need. Perhaps this is more a factor of what and whose history has been taught than of the nature of history and its importance to people. Elementary teachers play an important role as they provide students with formal learning experiences in history. Recent investigations into how elementary and middle school students understand history have described the naIve concepts or imaginative and inaccurate assumptions students hold. These investigations challenge the validity of past ways of introducing the study of history to young people. Therefore, the curriculum and instructional strategies that adults often experienced in their elementary and middle school years are being seriously questioned and reevaluated. This chapter investigates several reasons for studying history, the skills required to study history, the role of interpretation and evidence in the study of history, and research on how young students begin to examine and interpret history to identify the contributions it makes to their lives. ., 1. Differentiate between the definition of history given by scholars and that used in schools. 2. IdentifY four goals or purposes for the study of history. 3. State a rationale for the study of history in all grades, K-S. 4. Distinguish between the roles of primary and secondary resources in studying history. 5. Explain why the teaching of history must include the examination of conflicts. 6. Explain why studying particular historical topics is suggested for elementary and middle school students. 7. Suggest instructional procedures needed to teach young students to think critically about historical events and people. S. Describe how timelines are used to assist in developing an understanding of time. 9. ReflecE on how the learning cycle approach to lessons is appropriate to the needs of students studying history. 10. IdentifY various resources that can be used to teach history to students. 11. Explain why the role of narrative in teaching and learning history needs additional study. 12. Suggest multiple roles for the Internet in the teaching of history and evaluate the practicality of each. Development: Definition of History History means different things to different individuals. Even historians do not agree on a single definition of history or on what constitutes an appropriate historical problem for investigation. Historians actually refer to themselves by different names: social historian, military historian, oral historian, archivist, public historian, interpreter, reenactor, genealogist, and archaeologist. However, historians generally agree on three important aspects: History is a chronological study that interprets and gives meaning to events and applies systematic methods to discover the truth. Unlike social scientists, historians cannot rely on direct observations and experiments to gain facts. The historian has only what has been left behind and preserved to provide hints as to what may have taken place. Some people leave much; others leave practically nothing. Like the detective, the historian conducts exhaustive research to find many clues. Discoveries are mostly just clues, not complete records. They reflect the perspectives and memories of their preservers. Therefore, the historian interprets the evidence, deciding on the degree of its importance and accuracy. This is done by applying logic and "best guesses" to knowledge about the people and their times. Often a discovery leads to more questions than it can answer. The ability to place times and events in chronological order is important in establishing causeand- effect relationships. Historians not only examine the motives and actions of people, but also often apply principles from science and scientific discoveries to help them interpret the evidence. Working in history requires logic and persistence. The task is not complete when the answer is found; the results must be communicated to others, or the knowledge could be lost forever. Actually, this explanation is not quite what a professio;nal historian might indicate. Elliott West, a specialist in the social and environmental history of the American West, explains that history has no beginning and no end. There is always more to learn. Of necessity, historians bound their studies with a beginning point and an end point. But in reality, events took place that predate the topic of your study, and more history transpires afterward. Knowing about these events can con~ribute to a deeper and greater understanding and a more meaningful interpretation of what you have learned. West describes history as an infinite study "that celebrates a diversity of viewpoints and emphasizes our continuity with, and responsibility to, the past and future" (West, 2000, p. 1). West goes on to say that in this infinite quality, the study of history has much in common with the nature of education for teachers. Students have various experiences before coming to school and return to different situations each afternoon. Teachers try to bound their teaching by knowing developmental characteristics of students at particular ages, but this is only a small help. Teachers who know the details of the lives of individual students have a better understanding of the students' interests, fears, and behaviors. Like the historian, the more teachers know about their students, the better they understand them. When studying history, the more students know, the better they can learn. Young students with limited knowledge and experiences can learn history but not with the same understanding that the teacher, parent, or scholar has. Just what students know and are capable of doing at different times throughout their school careers is largely unknown. Only in recent years has research tried to discover how students learn history. Additionally, if constructivists are correct, the problems of teaching history today differ from those perceived as problems ofteaching history in the past. What you knew and could understand as a child might not be, because of changes in society and the world, what today's child can understand. Recent research points out that students understand time and lots of other concepts needed to learn history in more sophisticated ways than educators realized in the past. Other research, particularly large sample test results, illustrates that students might not know things that we think they know or what we think we knew when we were their age. Teachers must decide how to use the research findings to improve the teaching of history while resisting the temptation to do what has always been done or what others who have little experience with teaching tell you to do. Brophy and Van Sledright (1997), in reviewing the new research concerning elementary students' understanding and learning of history, recommend that teachers ask themselves the following questions to reflect seriously on their approach to teaching history: What are the big ideas I need to teach? How can the study of history pique students' interests? How can I encourage students to ask important questions about what happened in the past? What inaccurate conceptions do my students hold that keep them from completely understanding the objectives? How can I help students understand the past and get inside others' experiences? How can I help students understand that history is an interpretive construction based on evidence? They also remind us that some students introduce imagination into their interpretation of events. They recommend that teachers create assignments and opportunities to recognize the improper use of imagination and replace it with analysis of facts to help students make more accurate and logical interpretations. History in Schools Historians have played a major role in all the national commissions and committees since 1892 that have addressed both history and social studies (Hertzberger, 1989). History is one of the specifically identified subjects in goal 3 of the U.S. Department of Education (1990), which states that history helps to prepare students for "responsible citizenship, further learning, and productive employment in our modern economy." The statement goes on to say that "all students will be knowledgeable about the diverse cultural heritage of this nation and about the world community" (U.S. Department of Education, 1990, pp. 5-6). Two important dimensions of citizenship education in a democracy are identified by Engle and Ochoa (1988). One dimension is socialization, the process whereby a child comes to accept and support his or her culture. This provides for the continuity of the society. Engle and Ochoa suggest that for a democracy to continue to reflect the will of its people, its citizens must also experience a second dimension, the forces of countersocialization. Such forces require people to examine their personal and social beliefs and analyze the problems of their nation and world. Countersocialization activities require views to be supported with reason and evidence. Such behaviors are needed if citizens in a democracy are to be able text continues on page 373 to decide which ideas, institutions, programs, and behaviors should continue, change, or be abolished. The study of history provides the opportunity for both socialization and counter-socialization experiences. Engle and Ochoa suggest that very young children receive instruction that is largely socialization but that some countersocialization instruction is appropriate in the later elementary grades. The learning cycle on page 366 on learning from the paintings and drawings of artists is an example of how to get data from pictures and how artists show events. The role of the study of history in the schools has been mostly to socialize students in the U.S. democratic tradition and to prepare them to be citizens. Much study has been devoted to learning about the origins of the nation and its struggles to grow physically, politically, and economically. Famous people and events have tended to dominate the study of history. Perhaps your definition of history greatly reflects this traditional approach to history. In recent years, social and ethnic groups have argued for the inclusion of important events and groups of people not previously studied in an attempt to present a more accurate interpretation of the nation and world. When asked to reflect on changes in social studies during their careers, more veteran social studies educators identified the inclusion of multicultural/global/gender-related education within the scope of social studies programs as the most important single change in the field When using social studies textbooks, many students fail to give attention to the pictures and graphics; at the other extreme, some students think they can just look at the pictures and know what happened. 1. What similarities are there between a painting of an event and several written paragraphs about the event? 2. How is it possible for an artist or a writer to create something that is accurate if he or she did not witness and event? 3. Do you think that an observer gets more meaning from the work of an artist or of a photographer? Explain. 4. What attitudes and process skills necessary to understand history or social studies does a lesson such as this one reinforce for an elementary or middle school student? 5. Many different artists and pictures could be used for this lesson. Why do you think the developer selected Jacob Lawrence for the Lesson Development phase and ancient artwork for the Expansion phase? 6. Why do you think the developer did not include grammar as criteria for the rubrics? Note: You can compare your answers for questions 5 and 6 with the developer's reasons at the book's Companion Website. of social studies. Catherine Cornbleth described this broadening of social stu -- ies to include more people as an important force because it "enables greater nu.rr:- bers of people to believe that they are a part of the U.S. and have a stake in ir- (Haas & Laughlin, 1999b, p. 10). NCSS Standard II, "Time, Continuity, and Change," names three key concepts for the study of history: "Social studies programs should include experiences that pmvide for the study of the ways human beings view themselves in and over time- (NCSS, 1994b, p. 22). In seeking to understand their historical roots and locate themselves in the expanse of time, students are linked to people and ideas that remain the same over generations. They also come to see the struggle to institute change as a way of exerting control over their lives. Developing a historical perspective helps individuals and groups answer the following questions: Who am I? What happened in the past? How am I connected to those in the past? How has the world changed and how might it change in the future? How do our personal stories reflect varying points of view and inform contemporary ideas and actions? (NCSS, 1994b, p. 22) Young children are studying history when they sequence and order events in their daily lives, hear stories about today and long ago, recognize that other individuals hold different views, and understand links between their actions and decisions and their consequences. The curriculum, beginning in kindergarten, has plenty of opportunity to examine these basic historical concepts. Students enjoy solving puzzling questions about an unusual site they see on a walk through their community or about their school in years gone by, as pictured in old photographs brought in by a visitor. They might also learn about the people for whom local buildings and streets have been named. Through the study of people and events in world and U.S. history, middle school students experience expanded historical inquiry. They have in-depth instructional opportunities to learn about people's lives in various time periods by comparing, contrasting, and judging the lives, actions, decisions, values, and cultural traditions of individuals and groups. After dialog and a major revision, the National Standards for History were published in 1996. The standards address U.S. history, world history, and historical thinking skills. Figure 12.1 explains the five common historical thinking standards (skills) for grades K-12: (1) chronological thinking, (2) historical comprehension, (3) historical analysis and interpretation, (4) historical research capabilities, and (5) historical issues analysis and decision making. As you read descriptions of behaviors needed to perform historical thinking, you might wonder whether you were asked to do these tasks when you studied history. Note that some skills the historian uses are not common to the thinking skills elaborated for the various social Note: Skills listed in italics are additions from the grades 5-12 standards for historical thinking. Standard 1: Chronological Thinking a. Distinguish between past, present, and future time. b. Identify the temporal structure of a historical narrative or story. e. Establish temporal order in constructing students' own historical narratives. d. Measure and calculate calendar time. e. Interpret data presented in timelines. f. Create timelines. g. Explain change and continuity over time. h. Reconstruct patterns of historical succession and duration. I. Compare alternative models for periodization. Standard 2: Historical Comprehension a. Identify the author or sources of the historical document or narrative. b. Reconstruct the literal meaning of a historical passage. e. Identify the central questions(s) the historical narrative addresses. d. Read historical narratives imaginatively. e. Appreciate historical perspectives. f. Draw on data in historical maps. g. Draw on visual and mathematical data presented in graphs. h. Draw on the visual data presented in photographs, paintings, cartoons, and architectural drawings. I. Evidence historical perspectives. J. Utilize visual and mathematical data presented in charts, tables, pie and bar graphs, flow charts, Venn diagrams, and other graphic organizers. k. Draw on visual, literary, and musical sources. Standard 3: Historical._~nalysis and Interpretation a. Formulate questions to focus their inquiry or analysis. b. Compare and contrast differing sets of ideas, values, personalities, behaviors, and institutions. e. Analyze historical fiction. d. Distinguish between fact and fiction. e. Compare different stories about a historical figure, era, or event. f. Analyze illustrations in historical stories. g. Consider multiple perspectives. h. Explain causes in analyzing historical actions. I. Challenge arguments of historical inevitability. J. Hypothesize influences of the past. k. Identify the author or sources of the historical document or narrative. /. Differentiate between historical facts and historical interpretations. m. Analyze cause-and-effect relationships and multiple causation, including the importance of the individual, the influence of ideas, and the role of chance. n. Compare competing historical narratives. .F_I--G--U--R--E-1---2--.1 Standards in Historical Thinking Source: National Standards for History Basic Edition, by the National Centerfor Historyin the Schools,1996,LosAngeles:National Centerfor Historyin the Schools. o. Hold interpretations of history as tentative. p. Evaluate major debates among historians. Standard 4: Historical Research Capabilities a. Formulate historical questions. b. Obtain historical data. c. Interrogate historical data. d. Marshal needed knowledge of the time and place, and construct a story, explanation, or historical narrative. e. Identify the gaps in the available records, marshal contextual knowledge and perspectives of the time and place, and construct a sound historical interpretation. Standard 5: Historical IssuesAnalysis and Decision Making a. Identify problems and dilemmas in the past. b. Analyze the interests and values of the various people involved. c. Identify causes of the problem or dilemma. d. Propose alternative choices for addressing the problem. e. Formulate a position or course of action on an issue. f. Identify the solution chosen. g. Evaluate the consequences of a decision. h. Marshal evidence of antecedent circumstances and contemporary factors contributing to problems and alternative courses of action. I. Identify relevant historical antecedents. J. Evaluate alternative courses of action. FIGURE 12.1 --_ .._-- Continued sciences. This is a result of the differences in the available data and ways data are obtained. In Figure 12.1, skills in italics are for introduction and mastery in grades 5-12 when students are more likely to be formal operational thinkers. Although these skills are similar to those for K-4, they differ qualitatively in the complexity and number of tasks the student must perform before making a final conclusion. Note the emphasis in Standard 5 on multiple perspectives and alternative viewpoints that encourage the historian to view history as an infinite story. Historians recommend that all five standards be approached in grades K-4 at a beginning, but not superficial, level that goes beyond retelling a story and beyond accepting only one possible outcome. They want teachers to emphasize the need for evidence to support ideas. Because of differences in the cognitive and affective development of students and in the curricula found in various states, two sets of standards for historical knowledge are presented: one with a K-4 or primary grades focus and one for grades 5-12. The recommended content standards are identified by eras of time. Each standard may be addressed in multiple ways. Teachers, states, and school systems make many decisions concerning the specifics to be addressed. However, addressing history with elementary students through topics and events with which they are likely to have some personal knowledge or experiences clearly must be emphasized. The National Center for History in the Schools describes activities keyed to the National History Standards for grades 5-12 in two sourcebooks, titled Bring History Alive. One sourcebook is devoted to U.S. history, and one focuses on world history. These illustrate the Center's recommendations for using multiple resources to teach history. Students use both primary and secondary resources and a range of intellectual skills to interpret the data and assess the interpretations that others have made of historical events and trends. The entire set of K-12 National History Standards are on the Internet (see the Companion Website for this book) and also listed as a recommended website at the end of this chapter. In response to concerns over what they saw as an inadequate quantity and quality of history teaching in U.S. elementary and secondary schools, historians formed the Bradley Commission on History in the Schools in 1987. Their final report is the most recent examination by historians of K-12 history teaching. The Bradley Commission says that the study of history is "vital for all citizens in a democracy, because it provides the only avenue we have to reach an understanding of ourselves and of our society, in relation to the human condition over time, and how some things change and others continue" (Bradley Commission, 1989, p. 5). The benefits can be grouped into three categories: 1. Personal benefits derive from helping individuals attain their identity by finding their own place in the history of the world. 2. The-study of history helps individuals better understand and study other subjects in the humanities. 3. Studying history helps unify citizens into communities by creating a national identity. The intellectual skills used. and promoted by the systematic study of history help people develop cognitively. The Bradley Commission refers to these intellectual skills as the "habits of the mind" (1989, p. 25). The Commission goes on to say that the principal aim of the study of history is the development of perspectives and modes of thoughtful judgment (social studies skills) associated with its study. Table 12.1 lists the perspectives and particular modes ofthought historians use in making their critical judgments and interpretations of people, institutions, and events. The modes ofthoughtful judgment are similar to the tasks of critical thinking required in making decisions whereas the perspectives are more similar to conclusions about the world from the study of history. Thus, historians view the benefits of studying history primarily from a person'al perspective whereas the creators of the school curriculum tend to see the benefits of studying history deriving from its contribution to a sense of community and national unity. T--A--B--L--E~ ---1--2--.-1- Habits of the Mind Associated with History Understanding the past is significant to individuals and society Comprehend the diversity of cultures and shared humanity Comprehend the interplay of change and continuity Accept uncertainties of life Consider conclusions and generalizations as tentative Readwidely and critically Distinguish between significant and inconsequential Develop historical empathy Identify causal factors Determine consequences Identify multiple causation Evaluate ethics and character Explain role of geography and time Identify assertions, inferences, facts, and evidence Source: Historical Literacy: The Case for History in American Education, by the Bradley Commission on History in the Schools, 1989, New York: Macmillan Publishing Company. Once goals are established by the state or local district, they are placed in an appropriate sequence for teaching. Teachers and researchers have important ongoing roles in this process based on their experiences and research activities. Although students might not be able to understand history as completely as do historians, they are able to address some aspects. In recent years, researchers have shifted their focus from understanding time to broader concerns about how children learn history. As a result, they are more able to make research-based recommendations for activities that help children construct a more meaningful understanding of history. Students know more about some historical topics than others. Children often know a great deal about the content and interpersonal relations of social history but very little about the nature and purpose of government, politics, and economics (Barton, 1997a). This has great implications for the type of history to select, the topics to be addressed, and the need to provide motivation and links to the reality and importance of specific events and people when teaching history at various grade levels and various locations. The National Standards for History are used by most states in establishing state social studies standards. They have incorporated many research findings into their recommendations. In the remainder of this chapter you will encounter specific references to research related to instructional strategies and resources for teaching history to elementary and middle school students. You also are provided learning cycle lessons and ideas that model the proper use of research findings. Much ofthe research has been done in single classrooms using in-depth interviews and analysis of students' discussion and activities. These intense studies provide a type of data that has not previously been gathered systematically or in large amounts. Most of the studies indicate that students in a class do not view historical events or individuals in the same way, although their explanations and responses might show some possible trends. Also available are the analyses of extensive tests such as the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP). These test data indicate a great need for improved practices. The NAEP has redirected the focus of their testing to attempt to gain information on both the learning of historical content and historical skills. Some state tests are also using these types of questions, so large-scale state tests may be helpful to individual states and school districts. At present, the NAEP is the best single test educators have to measure both present successes and failures and any large-scale impact of reforms in the teaching of history. Past NAEP testing, conducted in 2001, is the best source of knowledge about U.S. students' understanding of history. Great similarities can be found in the NAEP findings reported on the teaching of civics and of geography in Chapters 10 and 13. The following statistics are of particular concern to social studies educators: • Mrican American and Hispanic students had significantly lower scores when compared with white, Asian, and Native American students. • Students attending nonpublic schools performed at a higher level than did those students attending public schools. • The percentage of students in grade 4 and of students in grade 8 who had teach~rs who reported that they never, or hardly ever, used primary documents was 62 percent and 23 percent, respectively. • Almost half the students had teachers who reported using textbooks daily. Overall, no statistically significant differences were found between the scores of male and female students in grades 4 and 8. At grades 4 and 8, 47 and 48 percent of the students, respectively, .performed at the basic level, indicating only partial mastery of the material tested. Relatively few students, 18 percent at grade 4 and 17 percent at grade 8, earned scores at the proficient level, indicating solid academic performance and competence of challenging subject matter. Much room for improvement exists, and great concern has been shown about reasons why children in particular subgroups have not performed as well as other groups of children. U.S. Secretary of Education, Rod Paige, said at a press conference on May 9, 2002, that the high percentage of students who did not score at the basic level was "unacceptable. History is a critical part of our nation's school curriculum. It is through history that we understand our past and contemplate our future. Our shared history is what unites us as Americans" (Paige, 2002a). Using Timelines to Develop Chronology The concept of time is very abstract. Timelines are concrete devices used to assist students in understanding time-related concepts. Physically making a timeline is only part of the process. Questions and exercises using the timeline are essential if students are to discover the meaning and relationships embedded within the timeline. Whereas the primary emphasis on the calendar in kindergarten might appear to be the recognition of numbers and counting, the calendar also helps to mark the passage of time and important changes that occur over time. Recording changes in the weather and seasons and recognizing holidays and birthdays are beginning points for the study of time in history. By acknowledging these events, the teacher helps students to recognize important ideas related to history. As time passes, certain things change and others remain the same, illustrating continuity. Students need to recognize these and mark regularities in the passage of time. Appropriate questions related to the calendar include the order in which things were done during the day and the recall of past activities. Marking the cl!fss calendar with a favorite event from their day is a way students record the history of their school year together. The first timelines that students are assigned to make are concerned only with the correct ordering of events. Recording one event for each day of the week or one event for each year of their life is a helpful structure for young students to use when creating personal timelines (Hickey, 1999). Using a clothesline on which items are attached with clothespins is a good way to make a timeline in the classroom. In the classroom, timelines are placed where they are easily seen and easily reached to make additions. Complete timelines not only identify dates or time periods for which the events occurred, but also order them over the uniform passage of time. Placing events along the time line requires the ability to add and subtract. When long periods of time are considered, multiplication and division are needed. Neatly placing drawings or pictures on a timeline and labeling events with words are physically difficult tasks. Young students need large pieces of paper and small time spans with which to work. Equal time spans are marked along the timeline. This can be done with the help of colored paper or knots along a rope. As students progress through the grades, longer timespans are studied. A century is a very abstract concept. Large time spans are divided into more understandable divisions. A decade represents the entire lifetime of fourth- and fifth-graders. A generation, 20 years, is a time period that is understandable and helpful. When considering events over a longer period of time, students can be asked questions linking the passage of time to generations to assist them in their understanding: How many generations passed between the events (e.g., the Civil War and the Spanish-American War)? Are there many people still alive who had firsthand experience with the Civil War and its aftermath or is their understanding based on secondary sources? Have there been any important events that might change the probabilities of what events are likely to happen to people in a war or because of a war at the time we are working with? Thinking about cause-and-effect relationships and hypothetjcal predjcbons can be stimulated by activities involving removing and/or moving events along the timeline. Question are also stimulating; for example, ask students what events might not have happened if the compass had been invented 200 years earlier. Teachers can also rearrange the events on the time line, asking students whether the new arrangement is a possibility. Students can be asked to consider if a particular event were removed from or added to the time line, what other events right also be removed or added (Sunal & Haas, 1993). Timelines are a part of most history chapters in textbooks, and they are often illustrated with words, colors, and pictures. Teachers need to encourage students to read and interpret the timelines in the texts as well as the words and pictures of a book. When teaching children about history, educators use a variety of resources in addition to, or instead of, textbooks. Additional resources provide opportunities to learn history by using a greater variety of learning skills. Part of learning history is learning how the historian gets and processes informahon. See Figure 12.1 for the list of skills (modes of thoughtful judgments) used in historical thinking. Historians use many resources. Each learning resource is evaluated for its usefulness, accuracy, and limitations. Some resources are readily available; others can be obtained through inquiries and using the Internet. Access to most of the great libraries and museum collections in the United States and in much of the world is possible through the Internet. These resources greatly extend the resource base available to all teachers and students and hold the potential of changing the way history is taught to K-8 students. Resources for teaching history can be obtained by asking for help. People are very willing to help when they are asked politely for specific things. Students' family members often have much to offer. Students should write a letter of thanks, including some ofthe things they learned as ways ofreviewing and illustrating their attention and learning. Students are prepared in advance for any special behavior needed in encountering or handling resources. Make students aware oftheir learning objechves in advance before the experience and excitement of encountering the resources distract their attention. Prepare data collection sheets that match the learning objectives for use during the resource experience. History is a part of everyone's life. Through examining similarities and differen c in lifestyles and using resources from various racial, ethnic, and social groups =- the community, a multicultural dimension is added to the study of history (HickE::- 1999; Singer, 1992). Whereas some people can relate experiences firsthand, othEr:: can tell about them because they remember what others have told them. Begin b::- talking to students' family members or neighbors. Have students write letters -- local history buffs, leaders of business and civic organizations, or the local new:=;- paper asking for specific information or for answers to questions. Some teache~ have had great success in dealing with senior citizen's groups or nursing home residents whereas others have worked well with collectors or craft makers. Not L people might want to visit a class, but many are happy to receive one or two s - dents. Students in small groups or as a whole group prepare a written list ofmeaI2- ingful questions to ask. Tape or video recording presentations helps to ge: information correct, but permission must be obtained before recording. For longer units of study, it is often useful to have one or two individuals who work well wit the age group visit several times as the study progresses. .- Museums are an important source of artifacts, but so are attics and antique stores. Larger museums often make reproductions available at reasonable prices. One or two carefully selected artifacts can provide many opportunities for students to use their observation and thinking skills. Interesting questions and discussions tha lead to forming hypotheses and investigations can be initiated by examining arti· facts. Artifacts are successfully used as instructional resources in each phase of the learning cycle. Examining the materials, craftsmanship, and workings of artifacts reveals much about the values and lifestyle of both the maker and user. Artifacts provide the opportunity to examine concepts such as change, continuity, and ere· ativity and offer clues to the local habitat and level of scientific knowledge and its application during the time period when they were used. A trip to a museum or restoration is often reported as a positive memory in the study of history. Many small local museums have some very different or unusual things students have never seen. Sometimes observers are surprised to find items displayed that they see every day but never think to be of value or related to history. Because museums display collections, they are often appreciated by middle grades students who delight in collecting and learning all about their own collections. Many museums and restorations provide active programs especially for students: allowing them to handle things, to take part in live demonstrations, or to remain several days to live and work in another time period. Students learn best ifthe opportunity for instruction both before and after the visit is provided. Teachers should contact the facility well in advance of the visit. Many museums have planned activities or reading lists to assist the teacher in preparing for the visit. They also provide special guides or programs for student groups. One of the largest collections of artifacts in the world is that of the Smithsonian Institution, sometimes referred to as "America's attic," in Washington, D.C. Through the educational services of the National Portrait Gallery of the Smithsonian Institution website (see the link at the companion website) for example, students can visit the 1999 special exhibit of the portraits of George and Martha Washington. State and local history is often included in the elementary and middle school curriculum. These provide the opportunity to gather data firsthand as a historian might and to process it into meaningful conclusions and displays. Third-grade teacher Caroline Donnan (1988) explains that she was able to meet all the social studies skill objectives through a third-grade study of the local community. Cemeteries are often the locations of commemorative monuments to events or people. A trip to the cemetery can help teach students about the life cycle and about how and why people are remembered. Older students can look more closely at tombstones and discover changes in lifespans and the reduction of infant and child mortality. Rubbings can be made or epitaphs copied to provide information about a person and the times in which he or she lived. Often, ethnic, religious, or racial groups are buried in separate cemeteries or sections. Examining this phenomenon can raise a number of interesting questions: Why did a family bury their son with other soldiers rather than in the family plot? Why are people of one religion all buried together? Ho\y;inany generations of a family are buried in one plot? What might this tell you about the people? The architecture of your community illustrates the origins of ethnic groups, changes in preferences, and the wealth of each owner. It indicates the technology and materials available to the builder. The names of streets reflect their functions and the people and places admir,ed by the citizens. Some buildings have been used for a variety of purposes, and some are no longer in use. Speculation and investigation of their future usage are worthy activities. Many communities have special memorials, statues, and buildings. These acknowledge important people, businesses, and events of local concern. They often link the community to national and world events students read about in textbooks. In small communities, walking field trips provide students with opportunities to gather data and identifY questions for future study. Sketching, photographing, and interviewing are helpful on a walking field trip and serve as discussion and project inspirations when students return to the classroom. Dot Schuler (2002) took her class on such a walking tour, which eventually led to their writing and illustrating a book that is sold as a guide to their community for tourists. Visiting a restoration involves learners in the lives of people who lived in other times. Interesting artifacts can be found in homes as well as museums and restorations. Every U.S. citizen should be aware of the content of important documents such as the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, and the Emancipation Proclamation. Many textbooks include reproductions of such major documents. Here, documents are defined as the official or public record of events in the lives of individuals, businesses, communities, and institutions. Historians examine many documents. Locally, documents often can be obtained through government offices, individual businesses and organizations, and local museums. Families may have deeds, wills, and certificates to share. The National Archives and Records Administration has prepared teaching resources and regularly publishes lessons based on a historical document from their collection in Social Education. Original documents are often handwritten and difficult to read. Most educational packets of documents include more easily read printed copies. As part of the federal government's emphasis on putting information online for use by citizens and in education, it is possible to gain access to many collections of documents through the National Archives and historical data from the U.S. Census manuscripts are at their website after the information is 50 years old (see links at the Companion Website). Questions to be answered when examining documents include those that help in gathering information, interpreting it, and establishing its meaning. Datagathering questions follow: What does the document say? What values are expressed in the document? Does the document include any words indicating bias or prejudice? Does the document order action? By whom? To whom? Is the document sworn to or legally binding? Questions that assist in establishing meaning and interpretation follow: What things happened as a result of issuing the document? Does the information in the document agree with other resources? Is this document 'likely to be more accurate than data in another source? Why might this document have been preserved? At what specific truth or what conclusion does this document help me arrive? Diaries, letters, and pictures are also primary sources of data. Some books contain these resources pertaining to specific events and time periods. Local families and museums may have such items that can be copied to share. Estate and garage sales are good sources of old pictures. The learning cycle on page 386 develops skill in gathering information and comparing pictures. Because those who produce primary sources are likely to state their opinions or interpretations, questions concerning the author's or photographer's credentials and views must be asked: Who wrote the material or took the picture, and for what reasons? Howlikely was the author to know the facts and to make accurate conclusions? Does the author or photographer have a reason to support one view or another? Are any facts present or does the writer present only conclusions? What other sources agree with the facts or views presented? What word(s) might indicate a bias or lack of objectivity? What does this document help me understand? Teachers can make documents into learning resources. Teachers Leah Moulton and Corrine Tevis (1991) found the local museum a great source of historical pictures of their community. On the back of each picture, they copied and then covered the museum's description. As their second-graders examined the pictures, they identified the first thing they noticed, and two things they might not see at the location today. Finally, they gave each picture a title. Following class discussion, the descriptive paragraphs were uncovered and read aloud. This allowed students to check the accuracy of their predictions and to learn more about what was in each picture. Grade Levels: Intermediate and Middle NCSS Standard: Time, Continuity, and Change Standard II National Standards for History Family life now and in the recent past; distinguish between past, present, and future; draw on visual data presented in photographs; analyze interests and values of various people; formulate historical questions; marshal needed information of a time and place 1. Students describe toys with which they are familiar. 1. Ask: "Of all your toys, which is your favorite?" Call on several students to share their selection. Ask: "Have you ever asked your parents or grandparents what their favorite toys were like? What were the toys? What do you think they would have selected?" J-: Students offer appropriate responses. Record participation on a checklist. Materials: Copies of pictures of children and their toys from two time periods (shown on page 388) for each pair of students 1. Students gather data from pictu res. 1. Explain: "Today we are going to work with a partner and compare two pictures of children and their toys. One picture was taken recently and the other about 1906." Ask: "How many years ago was 1906? Does anyone know an individual that old? How do you think the pictures will compare?" Receivea few predictions. Ask for a show of hands for those who agree with each prediction. Assign partners. 2. Distribute the pictures and the following questions to consider when comparing the pictures. (Allow about 10 minutes for this activity.) a. List at least three things about the people shown in each pictu reo b. Identify at least 10 items shown in each pictu reo e. Where do you think each picture was taken? d. Who do you think took each picture? Why? 1. Students answer correctly or logically. 2. Note student participation on a checklist: task, sharing ideas, and so on. Note evidence used by students. 2. Students make conclusions concerning the role toys play in training children for thei r aduIt lives. e. How are the pictures alike? f. How are the pictures different? g. Identify at least three changes that you see illustrated in the pictures. h. How have the lives of children changed in the years between the time the pictures were taken7 I. What do you think children learned from playing with the toys in the pictures? J. Which one of the children shown in the two pictures would you most like to be?Why? 3. Ask students to discuss their findings to questions 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. 4. Closure: "Do you have any questions about the pictures? How many of you think that toys have some purpose other than entertaining children? What purposes?" 3. Students provi~'t correct or logical answers. - 1. Students suggest 1. Discussthe following question: 1. Students' answers toys that might ..: "Do you think boys and girls should be kept from reflect the content have belonged to playing with any particular toy? Why?" of the lesson in supchildren in the 2. In the 1906 picture, most of the toys probably be- port of their ideas. early 1900s. longed to the girl becausevery young children did not have as many toys. Ask: "Is that still true today? When the little boy was·asold as his sister,what kind of toys do you think he had?Where could we find out what toys were available for boys around 19067" 2. Students check 3. Students look in books about old toys, old catalogs, 2. Formal assessment. their predictions consult an antique dealer, or do Internet search to see Students affirm prewith research and what toys were available to check their predictions. dictions or explain share fi ndings in Teacher posts illustrations prominently in the c1ass- their research discovformal oral presen- room eries, giving the tations, using illus- 4. Lesson Summary: Havestudents briefly describe the source(s)of their trations to support activities of the lesson and the main ideas. Ask stu- data and new facts or their findings. dents to look at the illustrations and select their fa- examples to support vorite child's toy of the past. Useshow of hands for their conclusion and agreements. a picture or hand drawn illustration. First picture for the history learning cycle on data gathering Second picture for the history learning cycle on data gathering Visual Lit~racy and History Before photography was available, artists preserved the likenesses of people and landscapes in paintings, on the walls of caves and on pottery, in stone, or on canvas. Artwork decorates buildings, homes, and tombs. Artists and, more recently, photographers made a living preserving images of the rich and powerful or what governments or news agencies paid them to photograph. Study of ancient civilizations often calls on the evidence recovered by archaeologists. Because the languages of many people are not written or cannot be translated, works of art provide us with our best sources of information about many people and how they lived. For nonreaders in the primary grades or for students whose first language is not English, works of art provide important sources of information and are instructional resources for learning social studies. Children often like to handle pictures, examining them closely. Smaller pictures cut from magazines, or travel folders and postcards, which can be laminated or placed in page protectors, make good instructional resources for small groups. Or they can be placed in learning centers with questions to prompt exploration and datagathering tasks. Another technique is to project a large image in which people are shown. Students discuss what they see, focusing on the people and how they might feel in this situation and what they are doing. Finally, small groups of students role play the scene several times and discuss their various interpretations and the likelihood of the role play being an accurate depiction. Pictures do not always tell the truth. Painters and photographers include and exclude things from pictures. A painting, drawing, or photograph is an interpretation of what was. Cartoon drawings are especially known for carrying messages, but messages in other visual images are often overlooked. Visual literacy requires skills in interpretation, the exercise of judgment, and the desire to question what is seen. It also requires taking time to look carefully at the whole and at its parts. Questions that promote visual literacy follow: Does the object contain a signature or clues about the creator? What is being shown? What does the artist want you to see first and foremost? Does the work contain secondary messages? Do regular patterns or shapes present a message or feeling? What use do you think the owner intends to make of this object? Films and children's film-length cartoons are resources with which students are very familiar. When films and videos are used, students need to analyze differences between fact, fiction, artistic license, and the need to create a story that sustains the viewers' interest. Many children's versions of films use a grain of truth, lots of special effects, and creative imagination. Ethnic groups particularly charge that stereotyping is used and untrue facts are presented in many popular children's films. The use of dialog, music, emotion, and visual stimuli make film and video powerful presenters of information that may not be accurate or fair. As with all learning resources in the classroom, teachers carefully evaluate these. When using them, teachers address the errors and try to assist students to differentiate between facts, fiction, and entertainment. When teachers have students present their learning in video or PowerPoint presentations, students' special effects need.Jo support accurate facts and interpretations of events. Visits to historic sites and weekend festivals often bring people into contact with reenactors who assume the role of people who lived and worked during the period being reenacted. History is taught by reenactors through presentations and answering questions as if the spectator had stepped into the historic scene. These historians are quite knowledgeable about the individuals they portray and how the individuals performed their work and lived their daily lives. It is possible to arrange for these historians to come to schools for special presentations or for special days of celebration. A day in a one-room school, at a medieval or Renaissance festival, visiting a colonial village, or at a frontier fort are activities used by many teachers. These are usually done during the lesson development or expansion phases of the learning cycle. Older students, after researching a topic or skill, might take part in a schoolwide presentation. They become instructors, presenters, or members of living displays to inform and teach classmates, younger students, community visitors, and family members about a Time for Reflection Wh~r'00 ~14 fht"nl:.? -_. ...---._--_.-.-._--._._ 1. An assistant superintendent attended a presentation of the Boston Tea Party by a fifth-grade class. Native Americans tossed the tea overboard and then set fire to the ships. If you had been the assistant superintendent who was called on to comment after the students' program, what would you have said? 2. How might the teacher have facilitated the students' recognition of the differences .between fact, fiction, and dramatic presentations so that the Boston Tea Party presentation reflected these understandings? 3. Children's literature is often beautifully illustrated. As students learn the importance of reading and the written word, they often entirely neglect the illustrations in a book. What questions can teachers ask to encourage students to identify the facts, emotions, and interpretations present in the pictures of books? 4. Identify at least three appropriate categories of tasks for a rubric for a history project that requires the students to illustrate what they have learned in drawings or through other artistic endeavors. 5. Establishing the evaluative criteria to differentiate the quality:of the tasks often requires several tries. Write what you think might be some fair evaluative criteria for the tasks you identified in question 4. particular era. These types of presentations may be part of a learning assessment. Some teachers use the acting out of history as a regular instructional strategy. Students use their background knowledge to role play people and events while teacher questions focus their thoughts and help them to reflect on and evaluate the likelihood of their interpretations. Teachers carefully plan these scenarios so that students focus on acquiring and using facts and interpersonal understandings to attain meaningful learning of social studies objectives. Students are confronted with making decisions as they believe people of the era would have made them. Then they reflect on, and perhaps revise, their dramas. This strategy gives students control over the direction ofthe lesson and their learning assessment. In the process of using drama and acting to learn history, students develop affective skills related to empathy and skills to interpret acts and events giving them greater meaning. Students often say that they learn and remember more having engaged in the acting out of history (Morris & Welch, 2000). Teachers help students successfully act out history in several ways: 1. Researching the historical topic or event thoroughly 2. Mentally summarizing all the research in a series of events and relationships 3. Making a large chart to post in the classroom of the objectives, in the form of questions, to consider about the event: What actually begins the situation? Who are the leaders of the action? How do the poor people in the community view the importance of this situation? 4. Focusing students' attention on learning and answering the questions in an accurate or realistic manner 5. Providing for large amounts of verbal student expression 6. Allowing students freedom in their learning and int~rpretations, but helping them examine their reasoning and interactions through discussion, reflections, and writing 7. Keeping a record of students' daily participation using rubrics with which the students are familiar and on which students know they will be assessed Each May, Social Education publishes an annotated list of notable children's books in conjunction with the NCSS Book Review Committee and the Children's Book Council. All the books are related to social studies content and classified by gradelevel topic. These lists serve as excellent resources for teachers and resource learning center coordinators. The decision to use these books as part of the curriculum depends on their contribution to appropriate social studies objectives. Many believe that trade books provide a better, or at least an important, source to use in learning history and social studies. Claims for their success in- One book does not adequately present the variety that is present within a cultural group, nor does one source of books for youth have books about the wide range of cultures and subgroups of a single culture. Inaccurate information in the narrative and illustrations of a book often results when a wellmeaning individual writes a book portraying another culture. The book's theme ends up being presented from the author's own understanding, which typically fails to represent the views or traditjons of the cuJtura)group presented [}ose)y related is the pitfall of presenting incorrect information because of a failure to perform the indepth research necessary to gain the facts. The problems in multicultural books are hard to identify, because finding the errors requires more information than the vast majority of teachers have about a particular cultural group. A number of organizations and individuals provide guidelines on how to include specific ethnic and religious groups in literature and give awards to accurate and positive efforts. Ness provides both guidelines and awards. Assistant Professor Debbie Reese is a Native American who helps educators by critically reviewing children's literature and issues related to Native Americans. Visither Nag at http:// am eri canind iansi nch iIdrensl iteratu reoblogspot. com/ to benefit from her scholarly explanations and the perspectives of Native Americans. clude the illustrations and engaging language are an improvement over dull textbooks, and literature expresses feelings and emotions with which students can identify. Some students seem to prefer trade books because ofthese characteristics (Levstik, 1986). The storylike format is familiar and can help students to read and understand the material because the story links information with causal relationships. However, the author ofthe story provides an interpretation ofthe facts that mayor may not be accurate. Students tend not to question these relationships if the story plot makes sense or if they personally identify with a character in the story. Because historical events are open to multiple and conflicting interpretations, the study of history must deal with such conflicts. Noone story can substitute for a study of an event or historical issue. Simply reading, discussing, or acting out a story is not a study of history. What is necessary is the examination of stories by different authors and documents that present new and conflicting information. Conflicting information prompts students to look for the truth of what really happened. Historical fiction books must be written in the context of the real historical events involving a particular place and time period. A story may be used as part of an exploratory introducti;~ to help raise interest in or questions about events. During the lesson development phase, narrative histories and biographies, both fictional and factual, can serve as the source of data to be analyzed and evaluated. Teachers may read to students, stopping and discussing difficult passages with them. This helps students relate other information they know to the passage to clarify understanding. This approach models good historical thinking and reading skills. Alternatively, a teacher may have students select from a group of books on one topic and share their findings and questions with others. Using multiple books provides an opportunity to accommodate students with different abilities. Various authors are likely to present different facts, come to different conclusions, and express different viewpoints and interpretations. The use of multiple books requires students to examine different opinions, just as the historian does. Successful experiences with the use of narratives and biographies in the study of history in grades 3 through 6 have been examined (Drake & Drake, 1990; Levstik, 1986; Zarnowski, 1990). In each case, multiple books were used, and the study lasted for a month or more. These studies reported that students tended to react strongly to the characters and their situations and that history knowledge was learned. Researchers have found that the meaningful examination and learning of history from trade books is not automatic. Teachers should not be surprised to discover that students often read stories differently from adults because they have different interests and experiences. Zarnowski (1990) reported that an examination of the biographies students wrote while studying biographies showed that students tend to include more details and reactions concerning the early life of the person but only a rather matter-of-fact statement concerning the person's adult accomplishments. Perhaps this happens because students bring a better understanding of youthful experiences to their reading and do not have a great enough understanding of adult work and the challenges and interactions required in adult society. Each student provides her own meaning to every educational encounter. Many have advocated the use of literature in the study of history and social studies. Some states, such as CaJifornia, require its use as part of the curriculum guidelines. Middle schools often require literature study to help provide additional practice in reading to improve reading test scores. Middle school teams often use a novel or chapter book with their integrated units or as the inspiration for an integrated unit. Teachers in a team relate their instruction about the book to their school subject. The social studies teacher might help students to understand the story in relation to its historical context. Difficult and potentially controversial or emotional topics such as slavery, the struggles for labor and women's rights, the immigration of Chinese to the United States in the mid-nineteenth century, and the Holocaust are present in textbooks. However, because of the nature of textbooks, the amount of coverage is limited. Teachers often use trade books to assist in bringing the life experiences of people to such topics and to help students recognize that laws and history are influenced by the combined impact of personal decisions. Depending on the focus of the content in a particular book, a trade book might be used in any of the phases of a learning cycle. The Making a Literature Connection feature in this chapter reviews several trade books and their potential uses to increase knowledge in lessons related to the Holocaust. Biographies and historical fiction are two types of trade books that have long been popular among young readers. Biographical series abound and are written for all grade levels. Often authors stress the subject's childhood and gloss over or omit the later life with its struggles and accomplishments. Other authors stress the values learned~-at a young age and used or practiced that led to an important accomplishmenCTeachers might use such books to stress the importance of civic values. Another popular use of biographies is to expand the coverage of women and minorities to fill in the gaps of what they consider limited coverage in the textbooks. Books of historical fiction are also available for all grade levels. For the youngest students, these books tend to present a storyline about a historical event and make extensive use of pictures or drawings. These make good read-aloud selections. Good historical fiction presents a plausible story in the context of a particular time period in which the sequences of events, buildings, dress, customs, and various attitudes and dialects are historically accurate for the time and setting. Real people referred to within the book should have lived and performed the actions ascribed to them by the author. The popular American Girl Series of books that describe a year in the life of a girl at various time periods in America is an example of historical fiction that attempts to promote positive images in young girls. Books of historical fictions are often selected by middle school teams for integrated units. The social studies teacher's contribution to the unit is to help students examine the events and the historical context and values. Storm Warriors (2001) by Elisa Carbone is the story of Nathan and his fictional family, who moved to a small cabin near the Pea Island Life Saving Station on the Outer Banks of North Carolina in the 1890s. The descriptions of the storms and rescue efforts of the Mrican American station keeper and crew are true. As a postscript, the author includes a description of her research procedures and a dedication that lists the names of the keeper and crew who inspired the book. There are several new trends in history trade books that attempt to present individual and social history to youth. One style is called the catalog book because it includes lots of pictures and illustrations with brief explanations grouped by topics such as entertainment, transportation, children's lives, and life inside a particular building. These books require that a reader observe the illustrations, many of which are quite small, for details and to make connections between items on the page. The narration tends to set the items in the context of the times and to comment on some details to illustrate and explain trends. Such books appeal to young learners who are great seekers of new, clever, or different ideas. They contain so many facts that the book can be examined many times and still bring out new findings and questions. These books are not appropriate for .-I'€ad-aloud strategies. Mary E. Haas (2000) illustrates how teachers can use smaU=group and whole-class discussions that prompt students to explore and ask questions about such books. A sample of individual and series of catalog books include A Street through Time (1998) written by Anne Millard and illustrated by Steve Noon, A Farm through Time written by Eric Thomas and illustrated by Angela Wilkes, Pompeii: The Day a C~ty Was Buried (1998) by Melanie and Christopher Rice, A Medieval Castle (1990) by Fiona MacDonald and Mark Bergin, and Welcome to Addy's World 1864 (1999) by Susan Sinnott. Few research studies support claims of better content learning with the use of literature. Research is needed on the effects of a literature approach, especially its impact on skill development and values formation (Eddington, 1998; McGowan, Erickson, & Neufeld, 1996). Naturalistic studies have revealed that some student responses can actually have a negative impact on learning social studies or history thinking skills. Students might identify so strongly with the character of the story that they are inhibited from critically examining the issues that the character encounters (Levstik, 1986). After considerable review of research and their own investigations, Van Sledright and Brophy (1992) concluded that students need to be taught how historical narratives are created if they are to develop meaningful understandings of the differences between evidence-based accounts and fanciful elaborations. Barton (1997b) says that educators need to be extremely cautious in their use of historical narratives. History must be based on evidence, and this necessity must be made clear to students. Books selected for students to read and learn history must have, as an essential criterion, descriptions ofthe sources of their information and acknowledgment of the conflicts among the sources (Levstik & Barton, 1997). At the Companion Website for this book is an evaluation form helping teachers make a sound decision about the use of a trade book for teaching history and social studies.
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