Helping+Students+Develop+Social+Studies+Inquiry+Skills

Helping Students Develop Social Studies Inquiry Skills .p- (orp,f"orVJ l Introdl/~F-c---t-i-o--n-- Read the following passage from the beginning of an interview. Respond to the questions that follow. My name is Elly Van Aspert. My family's name was Neeter, and my Christian name is Esther. I was born in Utrecht, in central Holland, on February 12, 1924. I am the oldest of four girls in my family. My sisters are Miep, Jos, and Emi. We were an ordinary Dutch family who were Jewish. My parents owned what today we would call an electronics store in ~ersfoort, 20 Kilometers from Utrecht, but this was before modern electronics, so the store sold electrical items like radios and vacuum cleaners. Mother was always in the shop.... She always welcomed people to the shop and would give them a cup of coffeewhether or not they bought anything. After the Germans came into Holland in 1940, we had to wear the yellow star on our clothes so everyone would know we were Jewish. Dutch Jewish children could not go to high school after age fourteen and a half, so I could no longer go to my high school. So, I went to a school for Jewish children in Utrecht .... After a while, all Jews were told that we had to turn in our bikes because we were no longer allowed to have bikes. So, I could not get to school in Utrecht any more. Of course, the Nazis wanted more than just our bikes! They wanted our gold and other valuable things. My parents gave our bikes but not our gold, even though we were always afraid of the Nazis. My parents knew we probably would need the gold sometime and maybe need it to survive. But, we gave in' our bikes because we never wanted to confront the Nazis. When we would walk down the street, we would try to walk with other children, not alone', because it was safer. Many Jewish people never came out at all. (Personal interview by Cynthia Szymanski Sunal on July 21, 2005) 1. Why do you think Ms. Van Aspert is being interviewed? 2. What do you think happened in her life through the period ending in April 1945? 3. What evidence db you find in this early part of the interview to support your responses in questions 1 and 2? 4. Because only part ofthe interview is available to you, what conclusions can you make about how your responses are limited by having partial data? 5. What social studies inquiry skills have you been using in reading this passage and in responding to questions 1 through 4? The entire interview with Ms. Van Aspert can be found on the Companion Website. Some questions follow the interview. The questions will help you to reflect on the interview and also consider how you might use it to help your students further develop an inquiry skill. Inquiry in social studies involves the diverse ways in which we study our social world and propose explanations based on evidence for various events. Inquiry also refers to the activities students engage in as they investigate the social world and develop their knowledge of ideas in social studies. Students ask, find, and determine answers to questions growing out of everyday experiences. Learning involves developing thinking, or inquiry, skills (National Council for Social Studies, 1994b). Table 4.1 lists the general abilities students need to carry out social studies inquiries. Most elementary and middle school students are ready for experiences that give them concrete foundations for understanding abstract social studies ideas (Anderson, 1997; National Council for the Social Studies, 1994b). These foundations constitute the inquiry skills: (1) early inquiry skills, (2) social studies inquiry skills, (3) inquiry attitudes and dispositions, and (4) integrative thinking skills. TABLE 4.1 Abilities Needed to Do Inquiry Ask a question about phenomena/events in the social world Plan and perform simple investigations Usesimple equipment, technology, and tools to gather data Usedata to develop descriptions and explanations Plan and conduct investigations Usetools and technology to gather, analyze, and interpret data Usea range of inquiry skills to develop generalizations and models using data Communicate procedures for investigations and explanations Communicate descriptions of investigations and explanations Inquiry skills help us develop an "explanation" for what we observe or investigate. The explanation students develop is the social studies "idea" or "knowledge" to be learned in the lesson. Students at various age levels and with various types of experiences develop different explanations from their personal experiences depending on the inquiry skills used or available to them. The challenge for the teacher is to make common experiences meaningful to students through the use of inquiry skills. Skill development requires classroom instruction during which students interact with each other. Assessment of inquiry skills is essential. Such assessment is communicated to students to help them understand that a high value is placed on learning inquiry skills. 1. Explain the importance of planning for the development of social studies inquiry skills. 2. Describe types of skills needed by students to develop meaningful social studies learning. 3. Describe the difference in emphasis when planning social studies inquiry skills for the' early childhood and middle childhood levels. 4. Describe the process of teaching social studies inquiry skills. 5. IdentifY conditions necessary for effectively teaching social studies inquiry skills. 6. Describe methods for assessing social studies inquiry skills during a lesson or unit. elopment: Using Inquiry Skills to Develop Students' ial Studies Ideas Knowledge develops through our experiences with the world and other individuals. Students use their prior knowledge and information from their experiences to construct new social studies knowledge. The success of this learning process depends on the level and kind of inquiry skills available to students. Teachers help students develop meaning from their experiences by encouraging the development of their inquiry skills. Throughout the year, inquiry skills are developed, practiced,' and " ds used in every social studies unit (Sternberg, 1994). The transfer of an inquiry skill from one context or topic area to another is an important goal. Transfer does not occur automatically when a skill is first learned (Anderson, 1997). Transfer of an inquiry skill is likely to occur automatically only after a student has had many opportunities to practice the skill. For example, in a unit on landforms, students should identify and classify landforms to learn to distinguish hills from mountains. A few weeks later, the class begins working with a unit on economics in the community. The classification skill students developed in the earlier unit on landforms does not automatically transfer when they try to classify types of community businesses, such as manufacturing and service companies. The following discussion describes and examines inquiry skills in an effective K-8 social studies program. People use their five senses to investigate the environment: sight, hearing, taste, touch, and smell. Preschool children apply their senses to develop numerous early inquiry skills as they play. Early inquiry skills include pushing, pulling, sliding, and rolling. Children run their fingers through people's hair, touch clothes of different textures, feel the warmth generated by sitting in a comfortable adult lap, taste everything they can get into their mouths, and listen to the cadences of a caretaker's speech in varying social situations. These skills facilitate the investigation of the very young child's world. Later, other inquiry skills such as observation develop through continued experiences. These early skills are learned before children experience any social studies· content. For example, very young children feel the textur~ of a variety of clothing items before they understand how money is exchanged for clothing or how the seasons determine which clothing items are worn at various times. These early skills are basic prerequisites for understanding social studies concepts such as wants and needs, money, and production and distribution of goods. They are also prerequisites for later social studies inquiry skills. Early social studies experiences are important and focus on building these early inquiry skills. A table found on the Companion Website for this book describes some activities that develop early inquiry skills. It shows relationships be- ! !!..'1!r~(___P!Y._.e_:~?.( Kindergarteners begin school with numerous early inquiry skills developed through interactions with those around them and with their physical environments. Very young students are usually skilled at filling and emptying containers, smelling objects and people, spreading sand and mud, throwing objects, running, whining, whispering, and so forth. Such early inquiry skills enable young children to investigate social situations, often testing others' reactions- for example, how significant adults around them react to a thrown object, to whining, or to a whispered confidence. Every student has a different set of early experiences. The culture of the home and its occupants dramatically affects the student. The neighborhood also exerts an influence, as do the media and the larger regional and national cultures. These in"fluences are diverse, so children start school with different levels of skill development. Some students have advanced classification skills, while others' skills are limited. Some students have had lots of opportunities to talk with adults, while others have had few opportunities. Children use their inquiry skills to examine their social worlds. Teachers expect wide ranges of skills among their students and engage them in physical activities that foster early inquiry skills among those who lag in development and build on existing inquiry skills among others, creating a foundation for social studies inquiry skills. tween early inquiry skills and those learned later. Rich and diverse experiences at home. and school provide learning opportunities and create students' prior knowledge. The social environment in which such experiences occur is important in the development of a child's attitudes toward learning. The early inquiry skills developed by very young children are incorporated into school social studies activities to develop social studies inquiry skills. These skills include both basic and higher-level integrative thought processes. They are important in social studies because they are necessary for exploration and investigation of the social world. Most children, and many adults, however, are not very good at using them (Glatthorn & Baron, 1991; Turner, 1994). Examples of social studies inquiry skills include observing, classifying, estimating, using maps, inferring, predicting, isolating and using variables, and interpreting data. The basic social studies inquiry skills are prerequisites for more complex inquiry skills. Table 4.2 provides examples of student behaviors related to each skill. Each inquiry skill is built on a number of subskills, which need to be addressed. Table 4.2 describes behaviors that are necessary for elementary and ABLE 4.2 -- Social Studies Inquiry Skills K-8 1. Identify and name characteristics of an object or event by using at least fou r senses.(Useof the senseof taste is restricted to specific teacherdesigned situations.) 2. Be aware of the need to make numerous observations of objects and events. 3. Pose questions focusing on observations of objects, people, and events. 4. Construct descriptive and quantitative statements of observations. 5. Construct statements of observations describing observable changes in characteristics of an object or during an event. 6. Distinguish among statements based on observations and those based on inference. '1. Describe the characteristics of an object or event in sufficient detail so that another person can identify it. 2. Describe changes in the characteristics of an object or during an.event. 3. Use pictures, maps, tables, and graphs to communicate results obtained from observations. 4. Describe relationships and trends orally, in writing, in drawings, and using graphics. 1. Identify and name observable characteristics of objects or events that could be used to group them. 2. Order a grol-lp of objects or events based on a single characteristic. 3. Construct a one-, two-, or multistage classification of a set of objects or events and name the observable characteristics on which the classification is based. 4. Construct two or more different classification schemes for the same set of objects or events with each scheme serving a different purpose. 5. Construct an operational definition of a single object or event based on a classification scheme. 1. Construct one or more statements or explanations from a set of observations. 2. Identify observations supporting a given inference. 3. Describe alternative inferences for the same set of observations. 4. Identify inferences that should be accepted, m(j(jified, or rejected on the basis of additional observations. 1. Construct a forecast of futu re events based on observed events. 2. Order a set of forecasts or predictions in terms of your confidence in them. 3. Identify predictions as (a) interpolations between observed events or (b) extrapolations beyond the range of observed events. 1. Demonstrate the use of simple tools to describe length, distance, and time. 2. Describe objects and events using measurements consistently during investigations. 3. Construct estimates of simple measurements of quantities such as length and area. 4. Apply rules for calculating derived quantities from two or more measurements. 5. Distinguish between accuracy and precision. Organizing, Interpreting, and Drawing Conclusions from Data 1. Describe the overall appearance of a graph or map and the relationships between individuals and groups of data. 2. Construct maps, tables, and graphs using information from observations. 3. Construct one or more statements of inferences or hypotheses from the information given in a table of data, graph, map, or picture. 4. Use and construct maps and graphs of various types to interpret data. 5. Describe data using the mean, median, and range where applicable. 6. Use technology hardware and software to gather, analyze, and interpret data. 1. Distinguish between linear and nonlinear relationships in data. Isolating and Using Variables Solving Problems, Making Decisions, Investigating, Thinking Critically, and Thinking Creatively 1. Identify factors that may influence the behavior or characteristics of an event or set of events. 2. Distinguish among variable5 that are manipulated, responding, or held constant in an investigation or description of an investigation. 3. Construct a test to determine the effects of one variable (manipulated variable) on a second variable (the responding variable). 4. Distinguish among conditions that hold a given variable constant and conditions that do not hold a variable constant. .1. Distinguish among statements of inference and hypothesis. 2. Construct a hypothesis relating potentially interacting variables. 3. Construct a test of a hypothesis. 4. Distinguish betwe(:n observations that support a hypothesis and those that do not. 5. Reconstruct a hypothesis to increase its power to explain. 1. Acquire background information. 2. Establish initial conditions for the investigation. 3. Write focus questions to guide inquiry. 4. Collect and analyze data while attempting to develop explanations. 5. ReeXamine and rewrite explanations/plans if necessary. middle school students to use each inquiry skil~ effectively. For instance, as young~.r students learn the skill of observing, teachers address the need for them to make many observations using all their senses. Teachers also encourage students to examine both qualitative and quantitative characteristics. If an !'lvent involves change, students are encouraged to make observations of the event during the change process as well as before and after it. Social studies inquiry skills can be grouped into four areas by their functions: data gathering, data organizing, data processing, and communicating (see Table 4.3). This sequence is used when planning an inquiry lesson or unit. Early in the lesson, several data-gathering skills are used. Later, data-organizing and data-. processing social studies skills are encouraged. Student activities involving communication occur throughout the lesson. A stronger focus on communication occurs near the end ofthe lesson when final conclusions are made, shared, and evaluated. A well-planned social studies lesson or unit involves skills from each area. Data gathering is where learning begins. A number of skills are used to gather data in social Eitudies: observing; measuring and estimating; researching and referencing; questioning; interviewing and surveying; interpreting books, charts, graphs, and maps; hypothesizing; and using technology to gather data. Students Look closely at the photograph in Figure 4.1. Then answer the following questions without looki ng back at it: • What is your first impression of where this picture was taken? • What do you think the people in this picture are doing? Look at Figure 4.1 again and respond to the following questions: • What details do you notice on a second look that you did not notice when you first looked? • Do these details support your first impression of where this picture was taken? If not, where do you now think it was taken? • Do the details you noticed on a second look support your first impression of what these people are doing7 If not, what do you now think they are doing? • What can you remember seeing, experiencing, or reading that supports your idea of what these people are doing? FIGURE 4.1 .._--- What Are These People Doing? This activity asked you to look at a picture without telling you anything about it. Then you were asked to make some inferences regarding where it was taken and what is happening in it. After having a second opportunity to make observations about the picture, you were asked to recall anything you might have seen that would support your ideas. These questions incorporated the three characteristics that should exist in an exploration activity beginning a skills lesson: (1) diagnosing what students now know, (2) focusing students' attention, and (3) relating students' prior knowledge to the new learning. By asking what your first impression was and what you could remember that might be related to the picture, the activity was diagnosing your prior knowledge and relating prior knowledge to new learning. The activity focused your attention by asking you to look at the picture and make some inferences about it. By reflecting on your responses to the questions above, you should be able to evaluate how appropriate your inferences were about the picture. Wewill return to this photograph later in the chapter. need many opportunities to practice using these skills and lots of constructive feedback when problems develop as they use them. Data-Organizing Skills Data gathering is the beginning point. The information gathered has little meaning to students unless they are helped to organize it so that it is usable. Skills that are important in organizing data are classifying, ordering or sequencing, isolating and using variables, and using technology to organize data. These skills enable us to take individual pieces of information and make some sense of them. We do this by putting together pieces that show similar characteristics. Once data is organized, it can be processed into concepts and generalizations using one or more of these skills: constructing tables, maps, charts, and graphs; finding patterns; predicting; interpreting observations; finding relationships; inferring; making conclusions; evaluating hypotheses; and using technology to process data. Communicating is part of what defines us as social beings. It is essential to the thinking process enabling us to share the questions we raise, the hypotheses we develop, and the answers we find. Language in written, spoken, or signed form involves us in communication. Communication is a large part of our lives and takes place both formally and informally. Communication skills include reporting; writing; graphing, map-making, and drawing; formal discussing; informal discussing; and using technology to communicate data and conclusions. TABLE 4.3 Functions of Social Studies Inquiry Skills .Observlng Measuring and estimating skills Researching and referencing skills Questioning Interviewing and surveyIng Interpreting books, charts, graphs, and maps Hypothesizing Using information and communication technology (IU) to gather data Classifying Ordering or sequencing Isolating and using variables Using information and communication technology (JU) to organize data. constructing tables, maps, charts, and graphs FInding patterns Predicting Interpreting observations Finding relationships Discussing to clarify ideas Inferring Making conclusions Evaluating hypotheses Using information and -- communication technology (IU) to processdata Reporting Writing Using graphing, mapmaking, and drawing Formal discussing Informal discussing Discussing to persuade Using information and communication technology (IU) to communicate data Today'sstudents usetechnology for information and communication purposesasan essentialtool. Three subcategoriesof skills related to information and communication technology (ICT) must be developed by students: 1. Information and media literacy skills: analyzing, accessing,managing, integrating, evaluating and creating information in a variety of forms and media. Understanding the role of media in the society accompanies these skills. 2. Communication skills: understanding, managing, and creating effective oral, written, and multimedia commimication in a variety of forms and contexts. 3. Interpersonal and self-direction skills: becoming more productive in accomplishing tasksand developing interest in improving one's own skills. This activity asksyou to use your present knowledge to determine the skill used to form each of the statements below. Rea~the statements and determine which statements are observation, inference, or hypothesis. Classroom Event A game was placed in a learning center. Students were told they could play the game throughout the school week in groups of two to four when they had finished their work and had some free time. The students found that the board game had colored squares on it in a pattern that covered the board. They also found nine small objects in a small box on top of the board. They did not find the rules to the game, nor would their teacher tell them how to play it. Students were asked to write about the game and their experiences with it in their social studies journals whenever they wanted to do so. Listed below are some of the statements students made during the week. Readtheir statements and identify which statements are observation, inference, or hypothesis, 0, I, or H, respectively. 1. "The game has squares on it." (Day 1) 2. The pieces go with the game." (Day 1) 3. "All games have rules." (Day 1) 4. The game has a box on top of it with nine pieces in it." (Day 3) 5. "We counted the squares in the game and there were 14 red ones, 6 blue ones, 12 yellow ones, and 9 purple ones." (Day 3) 6. "The game is like Monopoly." (Day 4) 7. The following statement was made by a small group of students who brought in several board games to compare to the one in the learning center: "All board games hav'ethe same kinds of parts." (Day 5) 8. "Rules are what make a game work." (Day 5) 9. "We tried to play the game nineteen times." (Day 5) 10. "When there are no rules for a game, people will start arguing because they can't agree on what to do." (Day 4) 11. "Someone must have lost the rules." (Day 1) 12. The following statement was given by a small group of students as a starting point for a project: ''The more parts to a game-like the more squares of different colors it has and the more pieces-the harder it is to play." How did you do? Check your responseswith the following answers: Statements 1, 4,5, and 9 are observations. Statements 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, and 11 are inferences. Statements 7,10, and 12 are hypotheses. Everyone has been involved with social studies inquiry skills in school. Yet many people have difficulty distinguishing among them or describing them. This is especially true of observing, inferring, and hypothesizing skills. Observations state characteristics of objects or events observed through the use of the senses. You should be able to identify the sense that is used to make an observation. For example, consider the following observation: The arrowhead felt smooth except for three sharp points along each side and a sharp point on top. This observation clearly involves the sense of touch. The arrowhead feels smooth. Sharp points can be felt on the top and sides, and the number of points can be counted on each side. Indirect observations are those made by another person: "Miranda told, me that the beef jerky Tomas brought to class tasted salty." Observations represent a single case or event. They may be valid but cannot be used to make predictions. Observations lead to statements of fact. Inferences are based on observations or fact statements, but extend beyond what has been observed with the senses. Inferences are best-guess statements such as "It looks like it's raining outside." They are only partially supported, or even unsupported, descriptions or explanations ofwhat has been observed. Inferences usually summarize and go beyond a set of observations that have common characteristics. Classifying, predicting, and generalizing often result in inferences. Classification inferences define an object or event, and usually apply to all observed and unobserved cases. In the Classroom Event activity on page 107, statement 8 is a classification inference. Prediction inferences attempt to determine the state of an object or event for which insufficient data is available to make an observation. In making a prediction, one must go beyond the data gathered and make judgments about an event based on information about closely similar events. Statements 2, 6, and 11 are prediction inferences. Generalization inferences summarize and make conclusions about information gathered and may go beyond previous information about an object or event. A generalization is an example of this type of inference. Statement 3 is a generalization inference. Inference statements can lead to the creation of concepts. Any activity focused on developing a skill uses some content. To teach a skill well, the lesson should be integrated with content, but priority is given to the skill (Eggen, Kauchak, & Harder, 1979; Sunal & Haas, 1993). A hypothesis describes the relationship oftwo or more variables constructed for investigation and testing. Simple hypotheses usually contain only two variables: the cause and the result. For example, consider the following hypothesis statement: The most popular lunch served in the school cafeteria is one that you can pick up in your hands and eat. Additional variables may be added as controls. Two controls might be added to this hypothesis for a class investigation: (1) All the lunches have been served on different days ofthe week. (2) All the lunches have a dessert. Based on personal observations and inferences, a person may make a generalized hypothesis for unobserved situations by saying that when variable A increases, variable B decreases. For example, when the number of kinds of vegetables served at lunch goes up, the popularity of the lunch goes down. Another hypothesis may claim that whenever the same variables are combined, the same event results. For example, any lunch that has a main part you can pick up and eat, such as pizza or hot dogs, is popular with students at this school. Hypotheses typically condense large amounts of data and are general statements that cover all cases, not only those that are actually observed. Once a hypothesis has been stated, it is investigated and tested. A special word of caution is needed at this point: Hypotheses can be proved only if all possible cases are investigated and tested. Testing all cases is an impossible task, so hypotheses can only be well supported so one feels quite confident about the relationship. The first set of data found that contradicts the hypothesis results in the hypothesis no longer being supported. An unsupported hypothesis must be either dropped or revised to account for the new information. People of all backgrounds carry out investigations, devising and using tests. Trying out different kinds of [|hand lotion] on severely chapped hands and deciding which brand of garbage bag best holds one's garbage without breaking when carried out to the garbage can are examples of investigations that involve a test. Rarely do these investigations accurately test hypotheses, however, because the variables being tested are restricted by conditions, and testers may have little control over'the conditions affecting the situation. For example, the person testing two types of hand lotion on chapped hands might not take into account how frequently the lotions are applied, how much is applied, and whether the furnace is on, dryds ing the air and making it easier for the hands to remain chapped when one of the I lotions is tested. Effective problem solvers design tests that require more observations of the proposed related variables covered by the hypothesis than do the ones just described. For example, an individual may investigate the effectiveness of different types of hand lotion on severely chapped hands by requiring a variety of handwetting tasks when testing different brands of lotion. The individual wants to make sure extra tasks, such as washing the floor, are not performed while a brand of lotion is being tested. Such extra tasks may wet the hands more and cause the test of lotions to be unfair. In summary, a statement that attempts to describe the relationship between variables and is general in the sense that it covers all cases, both observed and unobserved, is called a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a statement that can be investigated. A useful hypothesis statement clearly relates two variables in a general way. A hypothesis may be disproved when one set of observations does not agree with what the hypothesis predicts. An acceptable hypothesis is one with a lot of support. Students must practice rewriting a hypothesis that needs to be modified or that was reje~ted when it was investigated. It is not an easy task. Helping Students Develop Hypotheses. Younger students can ask questions and carry out investigations when they are working with familiar items or situations. Hypothesis formation can be taught (Sunal & Sunal, 1999). The hypothesis is developed as a response to a specific inquiry. This process occurs in the lesson development phase ofthe learning cycle. Students are asked questions to get them thinking about what is needed to decide whether their original inquiry can be addressed: What do you need to know to answer your question? What do you now know about this? What do you need to tryout? How could this material or event help us come up with answers to our question? What should be changed? What will happen as a result of the change? Cooperative learning groups offer an opportunity for the give and take of ideas and are effective when trying to develop hypotheses. Evaluating Hypotheses. After data is gathered and presented, students decide whether their hypotheses are supported. Four results are possible: 1. If the data is inadequate for making a decision, students decide they need additional data. 2. If the hypothesis is supported, students invent a generalization. 3. If the hypothesis is not supported by the data, students reconstruct their hypothesis. 4. If the hypothesis is not supported by the data, students may reject the hypothesis and construct a new tentative hypothesis based on the additional information. In social studies, students often develop guiding hypotheses, which have characteristics different in some ways from the hypotheses just described. Guiding hypotheses are tools that help an investigator raise questions and search for patterns. These hypotheses are not as precise as those just discussed. The investigator starts with an inquiry and then develops some guiding hypotheses to investigate it further. As interesting patterns are found in the search, a guiding hypothesis may be discarded and another one developed. Teachers help students develop guiding hypotheses for different kinds ofinvestigations. Students might do an exploratory investigation, a process that investigates something they do not understand very well. In this case, it is not possible to develop a hypothesis that clearly links variables and describes a test that can be carried out. Instead, students are trying to discover or identifY the important variables. Examples of questions that can be used in an exploratory investigation follow: Elementary and middle school students constructed the following hypotheses to test during a week of school. Readthe pairs of hypotheses below. Identify the statement that identifies the better hypothesis in each pair. 1.a. The later the hour in the day, the more likely it will rain. 1.b. It rains more often on September 20 than on October 20. 2.a. A candidate who has the most debates with opponents will win an election. 2.b. The more debates there are, the more people notice a candidate. 3.a. The greater the perceived threat from another as determined by the number of attacks on communities by an opponent's soldiers, the more frequently protective walls are built around both large and small communities. 3.b. People build big structures such as castles or the Great Wall of China to protect themselves. 4.a. The longer a country has had a flag, the more likely it is to be a representative democracy. 4.b. Placing the flags of countries on a timeline will give us an answer. 5.a. Students who are taller than 5 feet are older than students who are 5 feet or less in height. 5.b. The taller the student, the older in months he or she will be. 6.a. Lots of towns are located along rivers. 6.b. The longer a river is, the greater the number of towns located along it is. l.a. As inflation increases, the amount of money required to buy a house will increase, keepi f}g up with the rate of inflation. l.b. The more unstable the economy is, the greater the rate of inflation is. 8.a. People keep others farther away from them in the afternoon than in the morning. 8.b. The later in the day it is, the farther away people like to be from those standing near them. 9.a. The more hours of sunlight there are, the more tasks people report accomplishing. 9.b. The more sunlight there is, the more we do. Answers and rationale follow. In statements 1a, 2b, and 8b, the hypotheses are generalized statements. In statements 3a and 9a, the hypotheses show clear relationships of two or more variables and are more readily disproved. In statement 4a, the hypothesis attempts to describe a relationship between variables: In statements 5b and la, the hypotheses are testable. In statement 6b, the hypothesis is a generalized statement that shows a relationship between two or more variables. Standards III, IV, VI, X What is happening in this event? (For example, consider the enforcemE::: class rules.) What are the important patterns we are seeing? (For example, everyone:: e=:J to ignore the rule about not borrowing pencils and other supplies fron:: - another.) How are these patterns linked to one another? (For example, students don': =:::- force the rule about borrowing materials because everyone gets short 0: ==.- terials once in a while and knows he or she will have to borrow from somelse.) (Marshall & Rossman, 1995) To gather data related to their questions, students can conduct interviews, Students might also develop guiding hypotheses as part of an explanato,= _ vestigation. In this case, they try to explain the factors that are causing an c=::::; or action. They may also want to identify plausible networks of causes that ,,' -_ the event. Questions they may ask follow: What events, beliefs, attitudes, and policies are shaping this event? (FlP-' '=Tample, a new bridge across a nearby river has been proposed, and stu .- - note that three different locations are being co!!sidered, each having its .• supporters or detractors.) How do these factors interact to result in the event? (For example, the locc.::::.::. for a new bridge across a nearby river has been chosen even though it mes== that a toxic dump at the foot of the bridge location will have to be cleanei. -: at great expense and a rare species of wildlife is endangered at the s:-=. the other end of the bridge. What factors caused this bridge location ::' -:: chosen over the other two proposed locations?) To collect data related to their jngujry; students might conduct interviews. tE:::- out surveys, or read documents about the event. Another type of investigation using guiding hypotheses is the descT.. study. Here students try to document the event of interest to them. To do so. -~-_ ask a question, such as "What are the important behaviors, events, beliefs. ",--- tudes, and processes occurring in this event?" (For example, our school seems ~ crowded, and people are beginning to talk about adding on to the building. v.-~=- is happening to make people think it is crowded?) To collect data related to -~- inqujry, they may observe the event closely, conduct interviews, carry out Sill' "'_= or read documents. A last type of investjgation using guiding hypotheses is the predictive " =-_ Students try to predict the outcomes of an event. They might also try to fo - other events or people's behaviors as a result of this event. They may ask thE =-- lowing questions: What will happen as a result of this event? (For example, what will hap~ class sizes if an addition is built on to the school?) Who will be affected by this event? (For example, will any of the students - in the school still be here when the addition is finished? Will new tea ~- " have to be hired for the additional classrooms?) In what ways will students be affected? (For example, will students be feeling less stressed because they have more personal space? Will students argue less over where to put stuff in the classrooms?) To carry out such an investigation, students might use a survey questionnaire with a large group of people. This type of investigation is often closest to the studies carried out to test hypotheses that were discussed previously (Marshall & Rossman, 1995). Attitudes and Dispositions Promoting Powerful Social Studies Attitudes and dispositions are affective responses that reflect our feelings and personallikes and dislikes. The development of attitudes promoting powerful learning is a fundamental goal of the social studies curriculum. We can plan for, model, and encourage these attitudes in a social studies lesson: curiosity, respect for evidence, flexibility, responsibility to others and the environment, and appreciation of the social and natural worlds. These attitudes are important for learning social studies, and also essential to being an active and responsible citizen. Curious students want to know about, to experience, to explore, and to investigate the things around them. This is an attitude that promotes all kinds of learning. Curiosity often is shown through questioning. Teachers foster curiosity by welcoming students' questions about people, objects, and events. Inviting students to pose questions is one way of valuing curiosity. Questioning brings satisfaction if it helps siudents share their pleasure and excitement with others. Satisfaction resulting from the expression of curiosity helps students sustain interest for longer periods and ask more thoughtful questions. Curiosity is wanting to know, rather than a mere flow of questions. Wanting to know stimulates efforts to find out. A teacher encourages curiosity by asking students to explain a puzzling event related to a key idea. One goal of the exploratory introduction phase of a lesson is to create curiosity. To examine the social world and construct meaning about it, students gather evidence and use it to develop and test ideas. An explanation or theory is not useful to a student unless it fits the evidence or makes sense of what the student already knows. Open-Mindedness. Students show they know that an unsupported statement is not necessarily true when they ask, "How do you know that's true?" or say, "Prove it." Adults often expect students to accept a statement based on the authority who made it. This can reduce students' desire to ask for evidence. If a teacher appears to accept statements from students without evidence or offers no evidence for a statement he or she makes to students, the attitude transmitted is that evidence is not necessary. Askingfor evidence conveys the true nature of social studies as a process focused on solving specific types of problems. Perseverance. Obtaining convincing evidence takes perseverance. Sometimes, gathering evidence to support explanations seems impossible to students. Perseverance involves waiting for new evidence to be reported, being willing to try again, learning from earlier difficulties, and changing one's ideas as a result of what is learned. Teachers model perseverance and provide students with some assignments that require seeking out information rather than just accepting the most easily available evidence. Consideration of Conflicting Evidence. It is not easy to accept evidence that conflicts with what you think you already know. Cultivating a respect for evidence involves an awareness and a willingness to do so. Students are more likely to consider conflicting evidence if their teacher models this behavior, accepts mistakes, and rewards their efforts. .' Respect for evidence requires reserving judgment. An individual does not make a judgment until an effort is made to find out whether the information is conflicting. Such information is willingly considered and used in making a decision. Students find this a difficult process that does not result in immediate satisfaction. Instead, a period of uncertainty and mental challenge exists before a judgment occurs. The concepts and generalizations formed when trying to understand the social world change as evidence that contradicts them is developed. Unless flexibility exists, each experience that conflicts with existing ideas causes resistance. It becomes a rival idea instead of a part of the process of modifying and developing an existing one. The ability to be flexible and the recognition that conclusions are tentative are important qualities. Elementary and middle school students might not be able to fully understand the tentativeness of ideas, but teachers need to promote attitudes that enable them eventually to develop this understanding. One way of doing this in the classroom is to preface conclusions with a statement such as "As far as we can tell. ... " It helps occasionally to talk with students about how their ideas have changed and how they used to think. Asking students to write and read about what they have learned in a small group helps them develop flexibility. Having students construct portfolios oftheir social studies experiences and receive feedback also promotes flexibility. Standards III, X Students are encouraged to investigate and explore relationships with others and their environment to understand them and to develop skills for further understanding. Growth of inquiry skills should be accompanied by the development of sensitivity and responsibility. This is expressed as an attitude of respect for, and willingness to care about, others and the environment. A sense of responsibility toward someone or something is more likely to occur when a student has had experience with that person and thing or knows something about them. For example, students who have picked up litter in their classroom or from the school grounds understand the effort that goes into this task. These students are more likely to take care of their school or community than is someone who has not been so involved. Knowledge and experience help, although they are not enough to create an attitude of responsibility. Many of the concepts relating to responsibility for, and sensitivity to, people and the environment are complex. The interdependence of plants and animals in an ecosystem, for example, is not routinely considered when citizens make decisions in local communities. Concepts are often controversial, such as in the production of energy using nuclear fission. Teachers can help students develop respectful attitudes toward others and the environment through examples and rules of conduct. Rules that teachers and students form together help when students begin to act responsibly. These rules can be expressed by expecting students to pick up pencils or crayons off the floor rather than step on and mash them, to water classroom plants on a regular basis, to wipe up a spill so that someone else won't slip on it, to wash their hands after covering a sneeze to reduce the spread of bacteria, and to provide enough space when sitting in a circle on the rug so that their neighbors have enough room to sit comfortably_~ The way to accomplish this is gradually to transfer responsibility to students for making decisions about how they should behave in their social and physical world. Values, Morals, and Aesthetics Although people use cognitive skills to gain knowledge, they are greatly affected by the affective domain. Often, it is an emotional aspect or implication that prompts people to examine a problem and take action. The skills used in the affective domain to make value and moral choices are the same as those used to examine cognitive issues. The difference is the content of the problem under consideration. Affective questions focus on making choices about preference, importance, correctness, and truth. Values are decisions about the worth or importance of something based· on a standard we have set. When we value something, we believe it is important or that it has worth. Value decisions are morals when the judgments involve rightness or wrongness. Chapter 8 discusses social studies education concerning values and morals in depth. Return to the interview with Elly Van Aspert at the beginning of the chapter. Respond to the following questions. If possible, share and discuss your responseswith your peers. 1. This interview can be used to assist students in further constructing the attitudes and dispositions just discussed in this chapter. Which of the attitudes and dispositions would you select to be a focus of a lesson using the interview with Ms. Van Aspert at the fifthgrade level?Why does this passagelend itself to teaching the attitude or disposition you have identified? 2. Several values are expressed in this passage.Which value speaks most directly to you? 3. Whose value is it, Ms. Van Aspert'Q Her mother's? Her parents'? The Nazis'?Why does it speak most directly to you? Aesthetics is the recognition of beauty and the assignment of value to it. Peoplevalue that which they consider beautiful. Through painting, sculpture, ceramics, and weaving, artists express the beauty they see in nature and in social events. Musicians and writers also express the beauty they find in nature and in social events. Aesthetics encompasses all forms of expression, including music, literature, dance, and art. Thus, activities providing students with opportunities to search for. beauty and examine values that people over the ages have assigned to the many , designs and relationships found in nature and in the social world are incorporated into social studies. Each generation must be educated to recognize and preserve relationships between people, places, and environment as production, distribution, and consumption take place among a larger and larger population. We need to examine and Standards III, VII !f~9._.~_f~rt!:!:~t!!:~f!1337183307?? Demonstrating Powerful Attitudes and Dispositions Attitudes and dispositions strongly affect our education. When teachers model curiosity, respect for evidence, flexibility, and other powerful attitudes and dispositions, students typically respond positively. Modeling involves demonstrating the trait in action and encouraging students to display it. Literature selections that demonstrate attitudes and dispositions promoting powerful social studies are available. Curious George by H. A. Rey is beloved by very young children, who watch the monkey's curiosity get him into all sorts of trouble and find that he always has challenging experiences but comes out fine. In Straight to the Hoop by john Coy,james, an inner-city 10-year-old, perseveresto prove himself on the basketball court. Responsibility toward others and perseverance are described in Freedom School, Yes! by Amy Littlesugar, asjolie, her family, and friends, despite threats, persevere in aiding a young woman who has come to teach in a Mississippi Freedom School in the 1960s. The Chimpanzees I Love: Saving Their World and Ours by Jane Goodall clearly presents Dr. Goodall's respect for our environment as she enthusiastically works very hard to learn about and protect an endangered species. institute ways that allow nature and people to coexist. Developing an appreciation for natural beauty is a starting point for students to learn to value the natural environment in which they live. By incorporating cognitive, affective, and aesthetic perspectives in lessons, students have opportunities to examine important aspects of a problem before making a decision. In so doing, students use many skills and apply them to information from both the cognitive and affective domains. Teaching Lessons in Which Students Use Integrative Thinking Skills In everyday life, people make decisions, evaluate, and form judgments about their world. In responding to life's problems and issues, people need to be able to make careful and appropriate choices. To make such choices, people engage in critical thinking, problem solving and decision making, investigating, and creative think-, ing (see Figure 4.2). Integrative thinking skills have a purpose. Determining the best color of clothing to wear in the winter, the best route to take to a relative's n~w home, or the size and type of air conditioner to buy for one's house when living in the Sonoran desert ofArizona all call for critical thought and skills associated with careful examination. These skills are important to use in powerful social studies lessons. They involve students in using many cognitive and affective skills as they reach a conclusion to a problem or issue in the lesson. Critical thinking involves having good reasons for what you believe. Critical thinking indudes careful, precise, persistent, and objective analysis of any knowledge claim or belief to judge its validity and worth (Ennis, 1991). Both before and after arriving at a conclusion, students need to be aware of, and willing to consider, the thought process they followed to reach the conclusion. Were their methods logical? Were they making unwarranted assumptions? Was a necessary step skipped? Did the evidence support the conclusion? Throughout the process is there an evaluation of the methods used? What limitations exist? What are the problem areas? How could things be done differently? Should the process be done differently? We engage in critical thinking when we think about and assess our plans, procedures, and conclusions, purposely seeking conditions that lead us to refute our conclusion. Critical thinking is demanding, but also creative, because we come to recognize that it enables us to identify problems and construct alternatives. Figure 4.2 describes the elements that are part of critical thinking. Critical thinking involves a complex set of dispositions and abilities (see Figure 4.2). These dispositions include seeking reasons, trying to be well informed, taking into account the total situation, and looking for alternatives (National Council for the Social Studies, 1994b). In addition, critical thinking involves abilities such as focusing on a question, judging the credibility of a source, making and evaluating value judgments, defining terms, and deciding on an action (Ennis, 1991; National Council for the Social Studies, 1994b). Students can begin to deCritical Thinking-Understanding New Knowledge Being open minded Asking questions . Focusing on a question Distinguishing relevant and irrelevant knowledge statements, vaIue statements, and reasoning Willing to analyze arguments and knowledge statements in terms of how well they explain Desiring to use credible sources Judging credibility of an argument or source Tolerating ambiguity Respecting evidence Waiting for considerable evidence before judging Being willing to search for more evidence Being willing to revise in light of new evidence Problem Solving-Resolving a Difficulty Sensinga problem Identifying important components of the problem Putting elements of the problem into one's own words -- Constructing or identifying a problem statement Identifying alternative solution plans Selecting a plan appropriate to the type of problem identified Anticipating and planning for obstacles Trying out the planned solution Monitoring the processof working toward the solution Adapting procedures as obstacles are encountered Describing the solution resulting from the procedure Validating the findings in terms of procedure and goal Determining the efficiency and effectiveness of the overall process Investigating-Testing an Idea or Explanation Writing operational definitions as needed Constructing a question to be answered Writing a hypothesis that answers the question Collecting and interpreting data related to the hypothesis Writi ng a report of the investigation, including a statement about whether the data support the hypothesis Creative Thinking-Creating Novel Ideas or Products Demonstrating an interest in exploring the novel and the unexpected Willing to try to create innovative or original thoughts, patterns, products, and solutions Willing to take risks in creating and exploring new ideas and different viewpoints Being aware of the potential of generating alternatives Being aware of the potential of applying ideas, analogies, and models in new contexts Being ready to change ideas or approaches as the situation evolves Being willing to work at the edge of one's competence and to accept confusion and uncertainty Learning to view failure as normal, interesting, and challenging Being willing to set products or ideas aside and come back later to evaluate them from a distance Feeling comfortable with and being motivated by intrinsic rather than extrinsic rewards FIGURE 4.2 -- Sample Student Behaviors Involved When Using Integrative Skills velop, with appropriate assistance during the elementary grades, dispositions and abilities that make up critical thinking. Problem solving is an activity with which we are involved every day at many levels. Daily life presents many problems that need to be solved. Students need our help in learning how to solve problems well, how to use a variety of problemsolving strategies, and how to proceed efficiently. Problem solving involves a complex sequence of thought processes, as described in Figure 4.2. Teachers help students become reflective problem-solvers by (1) listening to students' ideas; (2) modeling thinking; (3) acting as a guide for students; (4) designing social studies activities that involve learning as problem solving and investigation; (5) planning, monitoring, and evaluating student progress; and (6) empowering students toward self-direction (Barell, 1991; Bereiter & Scarmdamalia, 1993). Daily life also involves continual investigating; that is, examining your actions, at times, in order to see what follows (Evans, Newmann, & Saxe, 1996; Schon, 1987). Although students have some skill in investigating, they need help in becoming more organized and efficient, in becoming better planners, and in identifying alternatives and limitations, among other components. Teachers should pose "what if" questions and encourage students to pose them and follow-up by designing and carrying out investigations that examine responses to their questions. Three problems often arise when a person is not very good at investigation. 1. Collecting too few pieces of data can lead to an erroneous conclusion. 2. Collecting more data provides more information, but that data must be shown in an organized form; otherwise, relationships among the pieces of data may not be obvious. 3. Even when organizing the information, too small or too large a sequence may result in data that isn't very.helpful. Teachers help students refine their investigating skills by encouraging them to share their information with the class. Data collected by one group of students may lend or reduce support for one or more of several competing hypotheses. Sharing information is likely to broaden students' understanding of a problem because they come into contact with a wider range of data organized in varying formats by different groups. During a learning cycle lesson involving investigating, students are encouraged to take different paths in their investigations depending on whether the data they collected are inadequate, support the hypothesis, or do not support it. If the data collected are inadequate and no decision can be made regarding whether a hypothesis is supported, students need to decide whether to try to collect more data and/or more appropriate data. If this can be done, they plan how to Standards I, II do it and then collect the additional data. Students sometimes find that it is not possible to obtain adequate data. The information might not exist in a form available to them. For example, students interested in the lives of a local group of Native Americans living in Nebraska during the late 1700s, before this region became a part of the United States, may find little or no information available. Students may, however, be able to make inferences based on information available on the Internet, in resource books, or via guest speakers from the local community college history department or the local historical society. Under such circumstances, students can be asked to explain how valid or reliable they judge their hypothesis to be. Or they might decide to pursue a different but. related problem for which more information is available. If their hypothesis is not supported, the students repeat the processes of gathering, organizing, and presenting data and deciding whether the hypothesis is supported by this new set of data. If it is, they have developed a generalization as a result oftheir second attempt to solve the problem. If their data does not support the reconstructed hypothesis, they need, to modify or construct a completely new hypothesis and repeat the process. Creative thinking uses the basic thought processes to develop constructive, novel, or aesthetic ideas or products. Emphasis is on the use of prior knowledge to gen-. erate other possibilities in the same context or similar possibilities in other contexts, or to extend ideas in new directions. Creative ability builds on and extends awareness, interest, and willingness to explore, create change, and generate novel thoughts, products, and solutions. One part of Figure 4.2 lists attitudes and dispositions that foster creative thinking. Lesson activities allow students to generate, or select among, different purposes for exploring and understanding basic concepts. Students explore the range of meaning ideas have. Lessons on local government, for example, include such divergent purposes as helping students construct an idea of the role local government has in necessary but ordinary aspects of our lives, such as trash collection, the removal of snow on school bus routes, thus reducing the number of "snow days" for which schools are closed, and paving dirt roads in the 1950s as more people began to own cars. Students select and revise a problem related to a key idea, choose the methods to study the problem, and defend ideas derived from their study. Such assignments challenge students to use what they already know, applying it to what they see as new and challenging problems. They use their skills in the more difficult tasks of combining information, generating ideas, and communicating their ideas. Return to the passagefrom the interview with Elly Van Aspert at the beginning of this chapter. Examine the last paragraph. What example(s) of problem solving and decision making do you find in this paragraph? If possible, share and discussthese with your peers. Technology can be used to expand students' control over their own learning by increasing the quality and extent of their experiences with information. In such classrooms, students are active seekers and constructors of knowledge with support from their teachers. Students' inquiries are facilitated by many public agencies. The federal government, for example, is making much of its current information and many of its archives and library resources available to the public. The Library of Congress, www.loc.gov/, is just one public agency with an ambitious program for placing its documents and pictures online. This website's pictures, sound recordings, maps, and documents interest students and prompt them to think about and ask questions. Many newspapers and magazines have websites, and many allow free access to their articles. News oroanizations have tapped their video archives, developing special programs that are often sold with eacher guides. C-Span, www. c-span.org, is a joint venture involving many local and national news agencies that cooperate to provide 'ree downloads of programs and lesson plans to teachers each week. The rights to use these materials vary among the programs. See the companion website for a Using Technology box on copyright law. Teachers use technology as a tool to facilitate social studies inquiry in five basic instructional elements: (1) providing authentic learning activities, (2) working in collaborative groups on projects, (3) providing information-rich classrooms, (4) connecting previously isolated teachers, and (5) promoting authentic evaluation tasks. Technology assists students in gaining firsthand experience through their own inquiries by involving them in situations far beyond the time and space limitations of the classroom. This happens through severa I activities: 1. Discussing questions and posing problems to social scientists, historians, and others who use social studies understandings on their jobs 2. Accessing current news reports and documents 3. Obtaining photographs and short videos 4. Making virtual trips eating Conditions that Promote Student Thinking Social Studies Teaching for thinking requires deliberate planning and classroom conditions facilitating student interaction. Three strategies help create a proactive approach to teaching thinking in social studies: questioning, structuring, and modeling (Allen, 1996; Costa, 1991). Carefully planned questioning helps students connect prior knowledge, gather and process information into meaningful relationships, apply those relationships in new situations, and be aware of their own thinking during these processes. Teaching for thinking starts with questioning students' prior knowledge of an idea and leads to current experiences with the idea. Several questions may follow up students' initial responses: What can you tell me about your past experience with events such as this? What is your evidence for that statement? What can you do now to become more sure about or comfortable with your answer? Effective social studies teaching involves helping students ask more questions an - providing them with· fewer answers. To accomplish more effective questionin. teachers must be aware of and plan for higher-level thought questions, questiolli that ask for evidence to support responses, and questions that require students become aware of their own thinking. Lessons should provide opportunities and activities for students to engage ic asking questions. Planning for questioning requires the use of wait time. Wait time involves waiting 3 to 5 seconds before asking a student to respond to your questior: and before responding to a student's answer. It is a research-supported technique that has been correlated with increased student thinking about ideas, with longer responses from students, and with more effective use of evidence in constructing responses (Rowe, 1987). Structuring involves planning interactions between students and the learnjn~ environment. It is important that teachers maintain and extend student thinking about social studies ideas for greater periods of time than is now common in many classrooms. The classroom and outside school enviromnent can be arranged so s - dents can interact with real people, real objects, and real social experiences. Students need regular and frequent opportunities to talk about their thinking anq to be involved in at least some risk taking in the learning process. A safe learning. environment with a positive and creative atmosphere encourages students to listen to others' ideas and to work with each other. Such an environment helps s - dents look at problems from many perspectives. Modeling involves posing a problem and thinking out loud while demonstra-- ing a solution. Using materials to provide observable cues is effective. For example, a teacher demonstrates how to use a map scale properly to measure distance on a map by acting out a complete procedure, explaining each step. Putting into action questioning, structuring, and modeling encourages students to integrate higher-order thought processes with social studies content. • A primary focus on a skill used in inquiry • Concrete and/or manipulative experiences • Use of content in an organized fashion • Extensive practice of the skill (Sunal & Haas, 1993) Concrete experiences use materials students can experience with their own senses. Such experiences might involve students in activities that feature a guest speaker dressed in Vietnam War military clothing, a 1910 glass bottle, a copy of the Declaration ofIndependence, or a video of a recent debate among presidential can· didates. Students might tryon a Vietnam War helmet, pick up a 1910 glass bottle and note its weight, handle the copy of the Declaration of Independence and try trace an original signature with their finger, or count the number of times a presidential candidate looked over at an opponent during the 5-minute period allotted for initial comments. Students need time to explore the materials or information available to make observations for use in later parts of the lesson. Processing unfamiliar information is a difficult task that is made easier when concrete materials are available (Ginsburg & Opper, 1988). Evidence shows that children have limited space in their sensory memories (Glatthorn & Baron, 1991). They can address only a few items coming in through their senses at a time. When all the sensory memory space is being used, items simply are not addressed; no attention is paid to them. Having concrete examples in front of them allows students to work with greater amounts of new information. They do not have to hold it all in their sensory memory at once. Having an item enables a student to refer to it and makes it possible for the student to work with a greater variety of information at the same time. When concrete materials are not available, the teacher should decide whether to defer the topic until students can more adequately deal with it in the absence of examples or whether photographs, video, computer software, Internet sites, or other less concrete materials can be used. In the lesson, many different activities encourage and emphasize the development of inquiry skills. The teacher does not explicitly focus on concepts and generalizations but on the processes and steps that direct thinking in identifying or applying the concept or generalization. However, as opportunities to teach content occur during the activity, the teacher takes advantage of them. Planning includes everything a teacher considers and prepares for classroom activities. Planning for skills activities includes • Idetlhfying the key skill that students will develop to a higher level • Writing objectives • Deciding which activities to use and sequencing them • Developing assessments • Obtaining the materials that will be used during the activity • Setting up the grouping arrangement for the activity (Sunal & Haas, 1993) Goals and Objectives. A skills lesson has two goals for students: developing skills and gathering an unspecified body of information (Sunal & Haas, 1993). Objectives for a skills lesson are developed from its goals. They identify the specific skill(s) students are to be constructing. Teaching Materials. To develop skills, students need information to process ..The teacher provides students with materials that give them access to the information needed. If possible, each student or pair of students should be provided with a set of materials with which to work. When it is not possible to provide enough materials, the following alternatives can be considered: • Ask the students to bring in materials. • Set up a learning station if just a few materials are available. • When just one object is available, organize opportunities for each student to explore the object with the teacher and/or person providing the object. • When no materials are available, use media or electronic technology. Grouping. Skills activities should use grouping arrangements that give students maximum opportunity to work with materials. Large groups, small groups, learning stations, or one-on-one interaction can be used equally well with careful planning. Expansion: A Learning Cycle LessonTeaching an Inquiry Skill Implementation of a learning cycle lesson teaching an inquiry skill involves three steps: an exploratory introduction ofthe skill, guided development ofthe skill, and expansion of the skill as it is used in different situations. At the beginning of a lesson, the teacher, Ms. Laney, involves students in a task in which they use the lesson's key skill. The task should be somewhat of a challenge. Here, Ms. Laney is diagnosing students' prior knowledge of the skill, how it is used, and what it is used to do. Earlier in this chapter, Figure 4.1 was used in an activ- _!_!_~_~}~__user:aarth521fuser:aarth521_~!__~.1337183307t_P~_~_~ Th!~!5? , L. _ Consider the objectives below. Which ones focus on teaching skills? 1. Sort old Valentine's Day cards into groups. 2. State the differences between a political and a topographic map. 3. Observe apple butter being made and list all the items used in the process. 4. Display a timeline by dressing in costumes from different time periods and standing in a line chronologically. 5. Examine several important people in our state's history and identify the characteristics they shared that made them important enough for us to study. Objective 1 focuseson teaching skills because its emphasis is on the processesof observing and classifying. Objective 2 is oriented toward the acquisition of the concepts of a political map and a topographic map rather than toward a teaching skill. Students would need to have constructed the skill of observation to accomplish this objective. However, the construction of skill in observation is not the primary focus of this objective. Instead, the skill is being used to construct a concept. Objective 3 is oriented toward helping students construct the skill of observation. Objective 4 focuseson constructing the concept of a timeline. To achieve this objective, students have to be able to put costumes in chronological order, so they would be using the skill of ordering or sequencing. Objective 5 focuseson the key skill of inferring. ity that focused on the skill of inferring. The two objectives for this activity were as follows: • Students use their observations of a photograph to make inferences about where it was taken and what the people in it are doing. • Students identify details of a photograph that support inferences made about it. Note that both objectives focused on the skill of inferring. Mter examining the photograph, students may find that they are able to make inferences about it, but feel unsure about those inferences. Ms. Laney has challenged, but not overwhelmed, the students with a task in which many inferences can be made. They will realize they can make inferences, but their uncertainty motivates them to want to learn how to make more accurate and appropriate inferences, setting the stage for the further development of this skill in the next phase of the lesson. Meanwhile, the task has made it possible for Ms. Laney to diagnose students' current level of ability at inferring. The task used in the exploratory introduction of an inquiry skills lesson in social studies is student centered and student controlled. No specific content was taught in the exploration activity. However, it was not content free. As you may have inferred, this photograph was taken in Africa. Specifically, it was taken in the town of Daura in northern Nigeria, during a Muslim festival celebrating the end of Ramadan, the annual fasting period. These people are passing through a gate leading to the palace of the Emir of Daura, a cultural and religious leader. In examining the photograph, you have an opportunity to add to your information regarding another culture. You may have noted the clothing people are wearing, architectural details, or any number of other items-. During the second phase of the lesson, Ms. Laney guides students more directly in constructing a higher level of ability in using the lesson's key skill. She asks leading questions, gives explanations, and provides examples of the use of the skill. Figure 4.1 was used in the exploratory introduction of the lesson on inferring. The objectives for the development section of this lesson also focus on inferring: • Students state that it is necessary to identify as many observations as possible when examining a photograph if one is to make inferences about it. • Students identify inferences about a photograph that have sufficient obser~ vations supporting them. Using a transparency of Figure 4.1, Ms. Laney drew lines across it, dividing the scene into quarters. Groups of students were asked to describe in as much detail as possible of what they saw in their quarter of the figure with a partner group, without identifying which quarter was being described. Then, the partner group shared details of its quarter. Each group checked with their partner group to determine whether the details given enabled them to identify the correct quarter. The whole class discussed the need to have sufficient detail before one can identify an object or event, and a summary statement was written on chart paper. Next, the students returned to their inferences from the exploratory introduction activity and identified details they had observed that supported each inference. They found that some inferences had little or no support. They added a statement to the chart paper about the need to find details that support an inference and then decide whether there are enough details to support it. Ms. Laney had students read the two statements on the chart paper. Then she asked them to help her make a bar chart that indicated how many details supported each inference. To bring closure to their further development of the concept of inferring, she asked each group to write out a brief set of instructions on how to make a "good guess," or inference, the next time they saw a photograph. After the groups posted their instructions on a bulletin board, the class read the two statements about making better inferences aloud. Then, Ms. Laney gave the students information about the event, such as its location.and purpose. The closure helped Ms. Laney determine whether the students were ready to move on to the expansion phase of the skill or whether they needed more guided development activities. Ms. Laney helped the students work with two subskills needed in making ap- - propriate and accurate inferences (see Table 4.2, inferring subskills 1 and 2). Although students need additional subskills to fully develop their ability to make inferences, the teacher had decided that these two should be taught first. Later lessons would return to these two subskills and introduce two more subskills (Table 4.2, subskills 3 and 4). Expansion Mter students have developed a skill to a higher level, they need to practice and expand its use to other types of situations. At first, students practice the skill with teacher guidance. For example, the teacher asks the students to explain why they have made an inference and expects them to report sufficient observations to support it. As the teacher guides the practice, students take some responsibility for their own learning. By asking students to explain their response, the teacher is enabling them to discover for themselves whether they are correctly using the skill. Figure 4.1 was used in helping students explore their current ability at making inferences, and then in developing their existing ability to a higher level of skill. The objective for the expansion phase of the lesson was as follows: • Students apply their inferring skills, stating appropriate inferences based on supporting observations about a photograph of a Nigerian family event. Readthe following activities from a lesson for primary grade students. Then answer the questions that follow. • Exploratory Introduction. Arrange students in a circle around a set of foods including sweet potatoes, peanuts, tomatoes, squash, pumpkins, field corn, yellow corn, and sunflower seeds.Encouragethem to examine the items and describe their observations. Then askthem to put the items into two groups: those they th ink people eat and those that are not eaten. Tell them these were all plants that European immigrants acquired from Native Americans. • Lesson Development. Discussstudents' observations and classification of the items. Are they familiar with each item? Examine the two groups that were sorted. Askstudents why they put each item in the group. Then ask small groups of three students to sort samples of the foods in any way they want. Talk about how they are sorting them by asking questions such as "Why did you put these together?" and "What is the same about the foods in this pile?" Have each student choose three items that go together and tell why. Ask the students, "What do people do when they put things into groups?" or "How do people decide that some things go together in one pile and other things belong together in another pile?" • Expansion. Encourage students to taste small samples, both raw and cooked, of each food. Then have them use taste to sort the items into groups. Ask students to decide which is their favorite from among the foods. Ask them to think of another food that tastes somewhat like their favorite. If they have difficulty, ask them to think of another food, not currently in the selection before them, that is similar in some way to their favorite food (i.e., color, texture). Then ask them to describe how it is similar. Finally, ask students to use magazines to find pictures of foods they like that are the same in some way, cut them out, paste them on a piece of paper shaped like a dinner plate, and write a description of how these foods are similar. 1. Whicb~skill is being taught in this lesson? 2. Is the primary focus of this lesson on having students further develop their skill of classification? 3. What unit might this lesson be a part of? 4. What lesson might follow next in this unit? This is a lesson in which the primary focus is on the skill of classification in which students classify Native American foods acquired by European immigrants. The lesson could be part of several different units, including a unit on Native Americans or a unit on European settlement of North America. The next lesson in either of these units could focus on recognizing how most of these foods became part of the modern North American diet. What other materials might the teacher have used as part of a unit on Native Americans to teach the skill of classification? What are three characteristics that might be used to classify these materials? Usethe materials you have just suggested in a lesson teaching classification. Briefly describe an exploratory activity, lesson development, and an expansion activity. Because this lesson was part of a unit on the many cultures of Nigeria that involved students in making inferences about somewhat unfamiliar places, people, and events, Ms. Laney continued using content about Nigeria in the expansion activities. Ms. Laney gave students another photograph that showed a house, some smiling people gathered around a woman sitting outside holding an infant, and other people eating at a table placed under a shady tree. (The picture showed a celebration that accompanied a "naming ceremony," which is held soon after a baby's birth, during which relatives gather to welcome the child into the family and to bestow a name on the child.) The students were asked to respond the same questions. used in the exploratory introduction activity. Then, groups shared their responses and constructed a list of supporting details. The responses and supporting details were exchanged with another group and discussed. Then, students were asked to individually identify a family event that resembled the one in the picture, draw it, and in one to three sentences state why the event drawn was similar to the pho~ tograph. Then, Ms. Laney gave them information about the event in the photograph. Finally, Ms. Laney involved the students in a ksson summary. She asked the students to briefly describe the activities that took-place in the lesson and the important ideas learned. For example, in her unit on the cultures of Nigeria, Ms. Laney's students often were involved in making inferences about the cultures, customs, and social events they studied. It is often difficult to determine whether all students in a group have mastered a particular skill. Students' level of performance using inquiry skills is poorly assessed by standardized and most paper-and-pencil tests because such tests often measure only lower-level social studies content objectives. See Chapter 3 for further discussion of assessment. Regular daily record keeping makes the assessment of skills doable within the demands of a busy teaching day.Assessment of student thinking skills uses different types of records for different purposes. The type of record keeping depends on whether the record is intended for the parent, teacher, student, or for another purpose, such as assessment by special education personnel. A task completion record indicates a student has finished a task. It can indicate how well or to what level a task has been finished. A task performance record uses events occurring within a social studies unit. For example, a student task record in an early grades unit investigating geographic features of the neighborhood involves the completion of specific tasks such as the following: • Making drawings of two personally identified geographic features using a variety of materials TABLE 4.4 .._- Record of Student Social Studies Activities Drawing two geographic features using a variety of materials Listing observable characteristics of geographic features Constructing a model of one geographic feature • Listing observable characteristics of different geographic features such as a small hill on the playground • Constructing a model of the hill Table 4.4 illustrates a record form assessing tasks. The type of information recorded for assessment ranges from a simple checkmark to a numerical rating scale, rubric, or a narrative comment. A checkmark indicates the student demonstrated or completed the task. Checkmarks are useful as a way to identify that progress has occurred, but they usually are not sufficient for evaluating student progress. The use of numerical, rubric, and narrative assessments helps diagnose students' strengths and weaknesses. Rubrics use criteria to assess and evaluate learning performance. See Table 4.5 for a sample rubric assessment. Rubric and narrative assessment ratings are useful in deciding on future social studies instruction. Table 4.6 identifies levels for curiosity. Records may be kept on individual or classroom charts. Comparing student progress to the over- ~-._\BL..E...4_-.-5-- ecord of Student Skill Development aserving _se of more than one sensewhile investigating the observable characteristics of a geographic feature ifying -- ification of a variety of geographic features by their shape
 * EIltifying Variables

=31tification of the height of the land as a variable related ·0 the observable characteristics of some of the '1eighborhood's geographic features TABLE 4.6 _._- sample Development Assessmentfor Curiosity [,!.I~!!J2it"..=user:aarth521__~_.user:aarth521_. ~ ..=_~._.~_~. ._. ~_J Lessonor Activity _ Levell Unaware of new things and shows little sign of interest even when these things are pointed out Level 2 Often seems unaware of new things and shows little sign of interest even when these things are pointed out Level 3 Is attracted by new things but looks at them only superficially or for a short time. Asksquestions mostly about what things are and where they come from, rather than about how or why they work or relate to other things Level 4 Usually shows interest in new or unusual things and notices details LevelS Shows interest in new or unusual things and notices details; seeks,by questioning or action, to find out about and to explain causesand relationships all development of the skill or to other students allows a teacher to provide a more supportive and powerful social studies program. Evaluation is a critically important task. It is necessary for planning effective social studies lessons, for providing feedback to students to enhance their learning, and for interacting meaningfully with students during classroom teaching. Chapter 3 provides an in -depth discussion of the use and techniques of social studies assessment. The categories of inquiry skills provide a way to scaffold the introduction of these skills in social studies lessons. During the early elementary grades, social studies Measuring and Estimating Inferring Descriptive; usesall senses; needs to use real experiences Usesof.le attri bute to classify Can describe information coming directly from the senses,can begin recording data Can make comparisons Usesinference but unaware of using it Usesprediction but unaware of using it Begins developing concept of fairness Quantitative; observes change; usesfamiliar situations Can use multiple attributes to classify; can use a hierarchical system Can make inferences from experiences; can begin graphical representation Measures with some accuracy; begins estimating Distinguishes among observations Makes descriptive, concrete predictions Identifies, selects, uses multiple variables Makes simple, concrete hypotheses; identifies hypotheses; judges; uses inductive thinking Useshypothesis testing Relatestheory and observations; can use imagined situations Can create a hierarchical system Can describe using maps, charts, graphs qualitatively Can use abstract measures and relations Usesinference in developing theory Makes quantitative, thorough predictions; uses qualitative description; uses abstract variables Controls multiple variables Identifies and constructs tests; judges; uses inductive and deductive thinking Usesand generates hypotheses lessons focus on basic skills such as observation, classification, communication, and measurement. At the middle school level, social studies lessons focus on students' independent use of basic skills and facilitate their learning of integrative inquiry skills. Table 4.7 illustrates the ever-increasing complexity of 'the skills addressed during the K-8 years. Inquiry skill learning requires relating the new skill to prerequisite skills, modeling the new skill, becoming aware of its components, and practicing and transferring it sufficiently so that it is performed ~T-A--B--L--E-- -4-_..8_. Teaching Inquiry Skills Using the learning Cycle Exploratory Introduction Help students tryout and confront their prior knowledge of the inquiry skill. Provide an opportunity for students to display the skill focused on in the lesson.Start students thinking with a "key" question involving them in an activity using the skill. Relate previous experience to the lesson skill. lesson Development Discussthe results of the exploratory activity, providing connections to the focus skill. Provide an explanation of the new skill, describing how to use it, when it is used, for what purpose it is used, and how to know when to use it appropriately. Provide clear examples or model the new skill. Provide closure for the new skill, describing the steps necessaryto use it. Expansion :- Provide practice activities for the new skill. Useinteresting examples, not repetitive practice. Provide activities where the skill is applied in new, relevant contexts. Provide activities helping students transfer the new social studies inquiry skill to more and more real-world events. Provide a summary of the skill, when it is used, and how to use it correctly. automatically. The learning cycle lesson accomplishes these necessary steps while building students' interest and proficiency (Table 4.8). Ideas are made up of information and the related inquiry skills necessary for using and interpreting information meaningfully. Students perceive and interpret information from their experiences and use their prior knowledge to construct new knowledge. Construction of new knowledge is dependent on the level and kind of inquiry skills available to students. Beginning social studies lessons focus on helping students derive meaning from their everyday experiences by encouraging the development of their inquiry skills. After students have specific social studies experiences in an area and have developed basic inquiry skills, the focus of social studies teaching moves from a skills emphasis to a skills-and-content emphasis. Inquiry skill development requires purposeful lessons focusing on such development planning and the use of methods that facilitate student interaction. Assessment and evaluation of a wide range of inquiry skills place a higher value on them and focus instruction on meaningful learning in students. Information, or data, is gathered, organized, processed, and finally communicated to others. Teachers sometimes rely on written papers as the way in which students are encouraged to communicate information. Consider a set of activities in which middle school students have been investigating the ethnic background of cowboys in the American West following the CivilWar. They have found out that many cowboyswere African American. What are appropriate means of communicating their information other than through a written paper? Set a familiar object in front of a student, such as a watch or a pencil, and list all the observations the student makes about the object in 1 minute. Then, ask the student to make more obseryations for another minute and record these. How many observations were made? Which senses were used? Talk with the student about these questions. Have the student make more observations of the same object for another minute. Was the student able to make new observations? This is one way to help students extend the length of time in which they make observations and the number and kind of observations they make. Decision Making, a lesson plan for grades 4, 5, and 6 http://a-skeric.org/cgi-bin/printlesso ns.cgi/Vi rtua II Lessons/Soci aUtu diesl Psych0 logy I PSY0004.htm I .Critical Thinking Strategies, a lesson plan for all grade levels http://askeric.org/cgi-bin/printlessons.cgi/Virtual/Lessons/lnterdisciplinary/INT0013.htm I The Process of Sequencing: A Picture Card Game http://askeric.org/cgi-bin/printlessons.cgi/Virtual/Lessons/lnterdisciplinary/INT0059.htm I Data Gathering: Vietnam, a middle school lesson http://askeric.org/cgi-bin/printlesso ns.cgi/Vi rtua I/Lessons/Socia I_Stud ies/World_H isto ryI Vietna m/VET0200. htm I Environmental Explorer: A lesson using observation skills to analyze changes that people have made to the natural environment. www.nationalgeographic.com/resources/ngo/education/ideas58/58environ.htm I The Library of Congress: The online catalog contains over 12 million bibliographic records representing books, serials, computer files, manuscripts, cartographic materials, music, sound recordings, and visual materials from the Library's collections. http://catalog.loc.gov/ Smithsonian Institution www.si.edu/